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EN
Confessional motivation of migration in the Early Modern times Kingdom of Hungary is in no way an unusual phenomenon that would deviate from the wide range of causes and connections of changes of demographic and population development. Apart from acute military danger, the possibilities of religion performing have limited its continuance or movement into new settlement in all documented cases since the very beginning of bigger movement of population within Europe. The confessional factor was not the only motive that could stimulate movement of population in space (mainly moving because of better sustenance was important), however, speaking about interpretation of migration waves, it is impossible to avoid considering the meaning of conditions for religion performing. It is interesting that in the case of the Kingdom of Hungary of the 16th – 18th centuries, the migration was oriented in spheres that have exhibited radically different religious tradition or structure: concurrently, a confrontation with foreign – non‐Christian religion (Islam) could happen, it could also be a process of colonization of desolate areas and building of religious infrastructure on „green meadow“ or integration of coming group into the environment with more church societies that work together or vice versa – they are competitive. As an immediate impulse could work phenomena such as forced leaving from home, banishing or more precisely expulsion, escape from religious persecution or voluntary movement into areas where the impact of any restriction actions, whether from the side of nobility or own denomination, was not expected. If the confessional motive was significant factor in deciding on the side of persons interested in migration, maintaining conditions for promised way of religion performance stayed in hands of landlords who organised colonization of areas. Before the stabilization of local government promised conditions were kept without any problems. However, after 1731 Recatholisation trend has spread. It corresponded to the principle of restriction of non‐Catholic religions performances and observance of generally laws in force and orders in those areas (regions) that were initially (by the laws passed in 1681 at a diet in Sopron) out of their reach. This trend was also commensurate with the way how organisational structures of state power and noble self–government were consolidated in freed areas: their crowding and intensification has brought the restriction of original privileges, unification of government, management and control.
PL
The poems by Julia Hartwig, Schütz’s Cantata from the volume Obcowanie (1987) and Bach’s Cantata from Czułość (1992), constitute a poetic record of the reception of ancient musical works (which are gaining more and more popularity in modern times). The poet is interested in cantatas by Schütz i Bach — religious works of art of two baroque composers from 17th and 18th century, whose artistic activity was strictly connected with Lutheran spirituality and liturgy. For the poet these cantatas are not only the source of aesthetic experience. Its reception (most probably from the radio, recordings or concerts) becomes a great inspiration for existential and religious reflections. It also makes the poet recognise their uniqueness: as being examples of theocentric art and deep religiousness of their composers, these cantatas reveal the ability to harmonise the human psyche, and consequently they seem to be a perfect art form.
EN
The work Notitia Hungariae novae by Matej Bel (Bél Mátyás) is based on rich historical source material depicting the character of life in described historic times. For the purpose of emphasizing concrete era or historic figure, it often publishes historic source in its all extent (in extenso). Letters from correspondence of the great figure of Transalpine humanism Erasmus of Rotterdam also belong to such type of source. Matej Bel (Bél Mátyás) used them in the case of three persons whose life destiny is related to history of Hungary. These persons are Esztergom archbishop Mikuláš Oláh (Oláh Miklós), Wroclaw bishop Ján Turzo (Thurzó János) and Olomouc bishop Stanislav Turzo (Thurzó Szaniszló). At this time, all of them are marked as Erasmists, i.e. the most important Central European representants and propagators of humanist ideas of Erasmus of Rotterdam. Matej Bel (Bél Mátyás) wanted to illustrate the meaning of these historic figures through the content of their letters that they exchanged with Erasmus as the most significant humanist scholar. It follows persisting response and reception of Erasmus of Rotterdam in Hungary even at the beginning of the 18th century. Slovak commented edition of letters from the correspondence of Erasmus of Rotterdam with Turzo (Thurzó) family that Matej Bel (Bél Mátyás) used in his work is presented in a supplement.
EN
The article deals with the impact and reception of reformational ideas in Bulgarian culture in the perspective of modernization problems. The subject of the analysis is both the local understanding of the concepts “Reformation” and “Protestant propaganda” as well as the activity of (neo)protestant missions in the Bulgarian lands in the 19th and 20th centuries. The aim is to identify the links between Bulgarian modernity and Protestant thought and to problematize relations between cultural facts and the official discourse on the subject. The “Bulgarian case” illustrates the modern Orthodox-Protestant meeting and, in this sense, the problem of adaptation of “foreign” patterns in the process of the modernization of culture.
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EN
The aim of this article is to discuss the ecumenical aspect of justification. Martin Luther was of the opinion that the road to justification was only through faith and grace, expressed by the principle simul iustus et peccator. The Council of Trent emphasized that justification is not only the remission of sins but is also sanctification. Catholic-Lutheran ecumenical dialogue formally began after the Second Vatican Council, which resulted in a consensus regarding the basic truths of the doctrine of justification and likewise looked at the person of Martin Luther, his demands, and the reformation.
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Content available Ulrich Zwingli und die Reformation in der Schweiz
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tom 17
209-220
EN
Ulrich Zwingli was born on 1st January 1484 in Wildhaus. He studied in Vienna and Basel. After a few months of theological study was ordained a priest in 1506, and took over the parish community in Glarus, where he stayed until 1516. From 1516 to 1518 he was a priest in the Pilgrimage Centre in Einsiedeln. In December 1518 he was appointed to Zurich. Zwingli’s reformation activity in Zurich revealed in 1520 as preaching activity, theological disputes and removal worship objects from the churches as well as the Lord’s Supper celebration associated with two symbols since 1525. The theological disputation with Luther in 1529 in Marburg, who recognised those changes in the Church as a new dogmatic and disciplinary order, showed to Zwingli his own reformation. It was more radical and dynamic, developing and eliminating the authority of theology. These views became the basis and the content of the First Helvetian Confession of Faith from 1536 laid by Zwingli’s successor H. Bullinger.
PL
Ulrich Zwingli urodził się 1 stycznia 1484 r. w Wildhaus. Studiował w Wiedniu i Bazylei. Po paru miesiącach studium teologicznego przyjął w roku 1506 święcenia kapłańskie i przejął wspólnotę parafialną w Glarus, gdzie przebywał do roku 1516. W latach 1516 –1518 był duszpasterzem w centrum pielgrzymkowym w Einsiedeln. W grudniu 1518 r. został powołany do Zurychu. Reformacyjna działalność Zwingliego w Zurychu przejawia się od 1520 r. w działalności kaznodziejskiej, w dysputach teologicznych i usuwaniu z kościołów przedmiotów kultu oraz w sprawowaniu od 1525 r. Wieczerzy Pańskiej pod dwoma postaciami. W dyspucie teologicznej w 1529 r. w Marburgu z Lutrem, który dokonane w Kościele zmiany uznał za nowy porządek dogmatyczny i dyscyplinarny, ukazał Zwingli własny nurt reformacyjny, bardziej radykalny, dynamiczny, rozwojowy i eliminujący autorytet teologii. Poglądy te stały się podstawą treści ułożonego przez jego następcę, H. Bullingera, pierwszego Helweckiego Wyznania Wiary z 1536 r.
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Content available remote Humanismus v novém konceptu literatury českých zemí (1. polovina 16. století)
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EN
Our ideas regarding the origins of humanism in the Czech lands are based on Kristeller's now classic “narrow” view of this school as a philological and philosophical trend. At the turn of the 16th century an active role in the literary scene was taken (with only some exceptions) by Utraquist priests, who with the aid of translations inter alia were endeavouring to reform the declining post-Hussite society. Emphasis was placed on religious education and the cultivation of morality in accordance with the early Christian church. This trend, which we have described with the new term proto-Revival, has for the most part nothing to do with scholarly humanism either at the level of translation or in occasional original works - but this does not detract from its exceptional importance. Religious rigorism and linguistic patriotism were not unique to conservative Utraquism, but can also be found in non-conformist religious communities. These small churches, motivated by confessional priorities, also rejected non-religious education and the tuition of foreign languages (Greek and Hebrew), while their leaders' activities were incompatible with humanist interests. Only the religiously syncretic centre in Náměšť aimed to keep pace with the rest of Europe. It was here for the first time, if only very briefly between 1533 and 1535, that the potential for undiluted humanism emerged, thanks to Erasmus's critically reformed method of translating, as well as to the domestic scholarly interest in the Czech language. At the level of Biblical translation the Unity of Brethren did not emerge from their Czech isolation until relatively late in comparison with the German reformation in the early 1560s. During the post-Hussite period, the substantial minority of Catholics came closest to the antique tradition and humanist thinking thanks to their studies at universities abroad, while the needs and readership skills of the...
CS
Východiskem našich úvah o počátcích humanismu v českých zemích je Kristellerovo dnes už klasicky "úzké" pojetí tohoto proudu jakožto filologicko-filozofické metody. Na přelomu 15. a 16. století převzali aktivní roli v literárním provozu až na několik výjimek utrakvističtí kněží, kteří mimo jiné pomocí překladů usilovali reformovat upadající pohusitskou společnost. Důraz byl kladen na náboženskou výchovu a kultivaci morálky v intencích prvokřesťanské církve. Tato tendence, kterou jsme označili novým termínem protoobrození, nemá většinou ani v rovině překladu ani v ojedinělých původních pracích s vědeckým humanismem nic společného - přesto však ze své mimořádné důležitosti nic neztrácí. Náboženský rigorismus a jazykový patriotismus nebyl vlastní pouze konzervativním utrakvistům, ale i nonkonformním náboženským společenstvím. Tyto malé církve, vedené konfesijními prioritami, se rovněž uzavřely před nenáboženským vzděláváním a výukou cizích jazyků (řečtiny, hebrejštiny) a rovněž aktivity jejich vůdců se s humanistickými zájmy neslučovaly. Krok s Evropou hodlalo držet pouze nábožensky synkretické centrum v Náměšti. Právě zde poprvé, ale žel nakrátko 1533-1535 se vyjevil potenciál nezředěného humanismu, a to díky Erasmově kriticky reformační metodě překladu a díky domácímu vědeckému zájmu o češtinu. Pak se na úrovni biblického překladu z české izolace vymanila ještě jednota bratrská, ovšem ve srovnání s německou reformací opožděně až počátkem 60. let 16. století. V pohusitském období se nejblíže k antické tradici a humanistickému myšlení díky studiím na zahraničních univerzitách přiblížila početní menšina katolíků. S potřebami a čtenářskými schopnostmi převážně utrakvistické společnosti se však míjela, a tak je...
EN
b2_While some humanist or antique texts that Hrubý translated for his readers inter alia, might unjustifiably have given the impression that he had humanist interests, a look at his worldview showed his primary interest was in an orderly society and concern for the good standing of the Utraquist faith as a model denomination for the Christian world. For these views on reformation Hrubý made use of appropriate texts with a moral and religious content regardless of the author or the period of origin. Although his translation procedures are very progressive in comparison with other contemporary translators, drawing on humanistic scholarship, his overall approach makes him a medieval thinker and author. However, his knowledge of antique and humanist literature also opened up the way for humanist education and activities at least for his son Zikmund Hrubý (Gelenius).
CS
a2_Zatímco některé humanistické či antické texty, které Hrubý mezi jinými předkládal svým čtenářům, vyvolávaly neoprávněné domněnky o jeho humanistických zájmech, pohled do názorového světa Hrubého ukázal jeho přednostní zájem o obecné dobré společnosti a péči o dobré postavení utrakvistické víry jako vzorového vyznání pro křesťanský svět. Pro tyto reformační postoje Hrubý využíval vhodné texty s morálně náboženským obsahem bez ohledu na autora či dobu vzniku. Přestože jeho překladatelské postupy jsou ve srovnání s jinými soudobými překladateli velmi pokrokové a čerpají z humanistické vzdělanosti, svým celkovým pojetím zůstává Hrubý středověkým myslitelem i tvůrcem. Jeho znalosti antické i humanistické literatury ovšem otevřely cestu k humanistickému vzdělání a působení přinejmenším synovi Zikmundovi Hrubému (Geleniovi).
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2012
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tom R. 68, nr 10
661-673
PL
W artykule dokonano przeglądu metod wytwarzania paliwa wodorowego metodą reformowania gazu ziemnego dla ogniw paliwowych małej mocy. Przeprowadzono rozpoznanie w zakresie warunków, jakim powinny odpowiadać paliwa wodorowe otrzymywane w procesie reformingu gazu ziemnego, aby mogły być wykorzystywane do zasilania ogniw paliwowych z membraną polimerową (typu PEM) oraz ogniw ceramicznych (typu SOFC). Opisano metody usuwania tych zanieczyszczeń z paliwa węglowodorowego, które mogłyby być wykorzystane w warunkach krajowych oraz sposób prowadzenia reformingu gazu ziemnego i konstrukcje zastosowanych urządzeń. Dokonano wstępnego wyboru metod oczyszczania gazu ziemnego i metod jego reformowania.
EN
Methods of producing hydrogen fuel for low-power fuel cells by natural gas reforming were presented. The requirements for hydrogen fuels produced by natural gas reforming for Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) and Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) were reviewed. Methods for the removal of contaminants from hydrocarbon fuel that could be used in domestic conditions, ways of natural gas reforming and the construction of reformers were described. A preliminary choice of natural gas purification and processing methods was presented.
EN
The aim of this article is to discuss the theory of confessionalization created by two German historians of religion – H. Schilling and W. Reinhard. This theory was in opposition to the Marxist vision of the overlapping confessional processes of change in early- -modern Europe, and also represented the late 70’s and 80’s of 20-th century the competitive paradigm to M. Weber’s recognition of the sociology of religion. In his reflections on the theory of the confessionalization put emphasis on the idea of modernization W. Reinhard potential of the catholic confessionalization, arguing that by my opinion that this fundamental social process present in Polish history, has an influence in the modern ages on Poles’ attitude Poles towards work who’s belonging to the Roman Catholic Church in the vast the majority. Therefore, as an important element in the modernization of the country, I consider the formation of a specific work ethic represented by the overwhelming number of its citizens who are also members of a particular religious community. In this paper, I have done an overview of the foreign literature (mainly German) – in Poland practically inaccessible, and unknown.
PL
Celem artykułu jest omówienie teorii konfesjonalizacji autorstwa dwóch niemieckich historyków religii - H. Schillinga oraz W. Reinharda. Teoria ta powstała w opozycji do marksistowskiej wizji zachodzenia procesów przemian konfesyjnych we wczesnonowożytnej Europie, a ponadto stanowiła od przełomu lat siedemdziesiątych i osiemdziesiątych XX wieku konkurencyjny paradygmat wobec ujęcia socjologii religii przez M. Webera. W swoich rozważaniach nad teorią konfesjonalizacji kładę nacisk na tezę W. Reinharda o modernizacyjnym potencjale konfesjonalizacji katolickiej, argumentując to moim przekonaniem, że ów fundamentalny proces społeczny obecny w polskiej historii, ma również we współczesności wpływ na postawę Polaków wobec pracy przynależących w zdecydowanej większości do Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego. A zatem za ważny element modernizacji państwa uznaję ukształtowanie się określonej etyki pracy reprezentowanej przez przeważającą liczbę jego obywateli, którzy jednocześnie są członkami określonej wspólnoty wyznaniowej. W niniejszej pracy dokonałam przeglądu literatury obcojęzycznej (głównie niemieckiej) - praktycznie w Polsce niedostępnej, a przez to mało znanej.
PL
Artykuł jest interdyscyplinarnym przedsięwzięciem łączącym zagadnienia z zakresu historii sztuki, nauk o sztuce, historii powszechnej oraz teologii. Rozpoczyna się od zaprezentowania specyfiki baroku na tle historycznych, społecznych i religijnych wydarzeń jakie miały miejsce w ówczesnej dobie, a mianowicie kontrreformacji jako odpowiedzi Kościoła katolickiego na szerzoną naukę protestantów. Ukazuje równocześnie rolę sztuki jako nośnika wartości i narzędzie do przekazywania prawd religijnych. W tym ożywionym czasie Kościoła sztuka stała się jednym z głównych głosicieli prawd chrześcijańskich, a w dzieło to wpisał się śląski artysta okresu baroku Michael Willmann (1630-1706), który na zlecenie cystersów tworzył monumentalne obrazy o treściach religijnych. Szczególnej uwadze poświęcony został cykl martyriów, a zwłaszcza kluczowy obraz „Podniesienie krzyża” stanowiący teologiczny punkt odniesienia dla pozostałych dzieł. Tematyka przedstawień, zawierająca program potrydencki i antyprotestancki, miała przekazywać prawdy wiary katolickiej, negowane wówczas przez protestantów i zachęcać wiernych do wytrwania w wierze.
EN
This article is an interdisciplinary undertaking combining the issues of art history, art sciences, world history and theology. It begins with presenting the character of the Baroque relating to historical, social and religious events which took place at that time, that is the Counter-Reformation as a reply of the Roman Catholic Church to the theory promoted by Protestants. At the same time it shows the role of art as a means of conveying values and a tool for communicating religious truths at the same time. In this active time of the Church art became one of the chief preachers of Christian truths. Michael Willmann (1630-1706), a Silesian artist of the Baroque period, became part of this work. Commissioned by the Cistercians, he created monumental images with reli-gious contents. Particular attention has been paid to the cycle of martyrdoms, especially the crucial image The Elevation of the Cross constituting a theological point of reference for the remaining works. The subject matter of the images, containing the after-Trident and anti-Protestant programme, was supposed to communicate the truths of the Catholic faith, negated then by Protestants, and to encourage the faithful to persevere in their faith.
PL
Cztery polskojęzyczne epigramaty poświęcone „pszczołom budziwiskim” (Fraszki, „Księgi wtóre”, 83-86), dwie łacińskie miniatury z tomu Foricoenia (44, 45) oraz Elegia IX z „Księgi III” Elegiarum libri quattuor Jana Kochanowskiego dokumentują jego związki z Mikołajem Radziwiłłem Czarnym (1515-1565), kanclerzem wielkim litewskim i wojewodą wileńskim, przywódcą protestantów w państwie polsko-litewskim. Poetyckie miniatury powstały najpewniej w okresie 10 czerwca – 19 października 1563 w Budziwiszkach vel Bujwidiszkach (obecnie: Buivydiškės) koło Wilna, natomiast jesienią tego roku Kochanowski napisał elegię. O ile w Elegii IX poeta kreuje wizerunek Radziwiłła jako męża stanu, sługi państwa króla Zygmunta Augusta, o tyle w bezpretensjonalnych epigramatach możnowładca jest przedstawiany jako mecenas skupionego wokół niego środowiska humanistów, propagujących reformację. Jako radziwiłłowskie „pszczoły” – pracowite, dobroczynne, znoszące na ziemię Bożą prawdę (odwołanie do Platońskiego toposu) – Kochanowski określił leksykografa Jana Mączyńskiego, poetę Andrzeja Trzecieskiego młodszego i zapewne Cypriana Bazylika – poetę, muzyka, drukarza. W epigramatach autor ukazał Mikołaja Radziwiłła Czarnego jako mecenasa kultury nowego formatu, promującego protestantyzm, zaś zgromadzonych wokół niego twórców jako spójne środowisko literackie. Jakkolwiek zostało ono przedstawione w sposób afirmatywny, Kochanowski zachował wobec niego postawę życzliwego outsaidera. Świadczy o tym sceptyczny ton foricoenium 45 i uwarunkowania biograficzne poety, który był wówczas sekretarzem biskupa Piotra Myszkowskiego.
EN
Four Polish language epigrams on the “Budziwiszki bees” (Epigrams, Second Books, 83-86), two Latin miniatures from the volume Foricoenia (44, 45) and Elegy IX of Book III Elegiarum libri quattuor by Jan Kochanowski document his relationship with Nikolai Radziwill the Black (1515-1565), the great Lithuanian chancellor and voivode of Vilnius, the leader of the Protestants in the Polish-Lithuanian State. The poetic miniatures were probably written between June 10 and October 19, 1563 in Budziwiszki aka Bujwidiszki (now Buivydiškės) near Vilnius, and Kochanowski wrote Elegy IX in autumn 1563. While in Elegy IX the poet creates the image of Radziwill as a statesman, a servant of the state of King Zygmunt August, in the unpretentious epigrams the magnate is presented as a patron surrounded by the humanists who promote reformation. Kochanowski described lexicographer John Mączyński, poet Andrew Trzecieski junior and most probably Cyprian Bazylik, poet, musician, and printer, as the Radziwill “bees” – hard-working, charitable, bringing the truth to the God's earth (a reference to a Platonic topos). In his epigrams, the author showed Nikolai Radziwill the Black as a patron of culture of the new format promoting Protestantism, and the creators gathered around him as a coherent literary milieu. Although it was presented in an affirmative way, Kochanowski maintained an attitude of the benevolent outsider. It is reflected by the skeptical tone of foricoenium 45 and biographical circumstances of the poet who was the then secretary of Bishop Piotr Myszkowski.
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Content available Życie konsekrowane a ekumenizm
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EN
The consecrated life is the following of Jesus Christ through a life of chastity, poverty and obedience. It was born in the Christian east of the undivided Church. From there it was transferred to the Christian west and took various forms. They were rejected by the Reformation. This state survived until the twentieth century. That can be called a kind of renaissance of consecrated life in the Protestant churches. The resulting monastic communities also open to other Christian denominations. The consecrated life filled with constant prayer leading to personal conversion and spousal union with Christ, which are considered the foundation of the ecumenical movement and its purpose.
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nr 4
129-139
EN
John Paul II mentioned that Martin Luther’s proclamation gave rise to the reformation and became the cause of breakages and divisions in the Church, but (despite everything) “the belief in the Crucified and Resurrected Christ remains as a common denominator of Christians of the reformation times. They differed in relation to the Church and Rome but they did not reject the truth about the Resurrection”. This truth particularly characterized the actions of people on the Polish political scene in the Jagiellonian period. This truth even now unites Christians and Christians who act together stand a chance to demonstrate to the contemporary world that evil can and should be overcome by good but they must, like Elijah, conquer disappointment and despair and to hear God’s command: “Get up, eat as there is a long way ahead of you”. Catholics and Protestants have already overcome many obstacles on their way to reconciliation but perhaps the tradition of Polish Christianity, its Jagiellonian dimension will point out new areas of dialogue.
EN
This paper attempts to examine the literary terrain marked out between the end of the 15th century and the year 1553, i.e. the period in which the first true Czech author, Václav Hájek of Libočany, author of the Czech Chronicle (1541), translator and adaptor of several Old Czech works, lived and worked. However, for this it was necessary both to confront some of the basically Marxist views held by mid-20th researchers and to try to incorporate the well-known facts into a higher entity called book culture. One of the period-based dangers of Marxist paleo-Czech studies was the evaluation of literary works on their own or without any interest in the specific nature of the communication process or the artistic and workmanlike aspects of publication, distribution and reading technique. One of the parameters of book culture is the readers' reception of texts, which enables a readership community to be formed and cultivated. Book printing in Bohemia and Moravia played a much smaller role in this process than we have previously presumed, as the foremost church institutions, Prague University representatives and thus the printers themselves did not understand the social impact of book printing and at most thought of it as another form of business. The literary scene was so lacking in writers, translators and potential readers, who were mostly just from the increasingly emancipated middle classes, that books of such typographic standards were not produced in enough numbers to support the habit of quiet reading and thus enable intensive reading to slowly turn into extensive reading. Domestic book printing was greatly affected by the import of books from Germany and the strong scriptographic output of the intelligentsia there.
CS
a3_Většina složek knižní kultury zůstala (pochopitelně s výjimkami) dlouho konzervativně středověká a díky přežívajícím národním genům se orientovala více reformačně než renesančně. Ještě na počátku 16. století tedy celá knižní kultura odrážela myšlenkovou uzavřenost jagellonských Čech a niterný náboženský svět utrakvistů a Jednoty bratrské. Světský akcent počal každodenní diskuse o eucharistii převyšovat až od 30. a 40. let, tedy v době, kterou rozhýbaly jak kulturotvorné záměry Ferdinanda I. Habsburského, tak protihabsburská opozice uvnitř stavovské společnosti. Ukazuje se tak, že pro knižní kulturu, jejíž nosnou páteř tvoří právě literární scéna, pasivní přejímání uměnovědných kategorií 19. století není nadále vhodné. Budoucí diskuse by měly ukázat, nakolik je vhodnější převzetí dynastické periodizace, jejíž vnitřní mezníky (1520, 1547) řídkou množinu renesančních a humanistických jevů knižní kultury pojmou bez problémů.
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