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1

Godność osoby ludzkiej i obiektywne normy moralne jako reguły w działalności gospodarczej

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Mazurek F. J.

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nr 1

19-53

EN

The author subjects to revision the economic liberalism supporters’ views, according to which there is no room for universal moral norms in the area of economy. The conception of homo economicus accepted in economy and the exclusive rule of profit are a manifestation of reductionism. The conviction that the free competition – free market – acts mechanically and impersonally and solves all economic-social problems in the best way is basically incorrect. In free competition there are positive and negative elements. Free competition – “yes, but what kind?” In the article a possibly complete picture of man is shown. Man is a reasonable creature, he is internally free and able to recognize good and evil (owing to his conscience) and owing to this he is the most perfect being in the created world. In his nature, man is a social being (ens sociale); a spiritual-bodily unity; he is not completely actualized but he is open to development; he is a religious and working creature (laborem exercens, homo economicus); he is able to do good, devote oneself to others, to build just – albeit not ideal –systems: legal, cultural, social and economic. But man is also able to do evil: to kill others, to steal, to lie, to wage wars, to commit acts of terrorism and of genocide, to build concentration camps, to manipulate the needs and mentality of whole societies and to enslave others by means of mass media – that is to form a one-dimension man. In the theological-biblical language this is called sinfulness of the human nature. And finally, man is capable of – as H. Marcuse writes – “scientific idiotism”. The highest value is the inborn, n a t u r a l, dignity of the human person, which is pointed to by his mind, inner freedom and conscience. Man is created in God’s image (imago Dei). Christ’s incarnation and redemption of man show his s u p e r n a t u r a l dignity. This is theological-biblical justification. Also philosophical (rational) justification is given. The former one is binding for believers, and the latter is for unbelievers. In the Catholic social teaching both justifications are given. The ontic structure of the human person in itself gives rise to obligations, it is the highest norm. It is defined in the following form: the human person should be respected for himself, because he is a person, and not for any other reason (persona est affirmanda propter se ipsam). The very human person, his dignity, is the fundamental norm of morality that is searched for. The Decalogue, objective and universal moral norms as principles show how to respect and protect the human person. It is not recognizing and complying with moral norms and human rights for themselves that is meant here – art for the art’s sake (pure formalism) – but protection of one’s own dignity and the dignity of every other person. Both moral norms as principles and human rights have been discovered slowly, step by step, but regressions also occur; this especially happened in the 20th and at the beginning of the 21st century. Human persons are the subjects of all communities – the family, the nation, the universal human society (familiae humanae), production and service institutions. The communities do not exist by themselves, but human persons are their foundation. Human persons, and not various systems, are the subject of any activity, for the systems are not persons or super-persons – Super Ego. Hence the thesis put forward by some economists that the system is ruled by an invisible hand is absurd. In human rights three elements are distinguished: their source, contents and protection. These constitute an integral whole. However, identifying a part with the whole (pars pro toto) is a logical mistake. The debate about man’s right to work can be solved after removing this logical mistake and introducing a new term: “the right for work”; showing that work is one of man’s fundamental needs, that it is a universal phenomenon, has a multi-aspectual dimension of values. Work is an anthropological (personal), moral, social, cultural, historical and economic value. Together with the multidimensional value of work the multidimensional evil of unemployment can be seen. There have been various economic models, even in capitalism. After the fall of socialism the thesis is proclaimed that capitalism is the only alternative (logical quantifier). Recognizing the priority of the real capital over work treated as a tool and commodity bought in the so-called work market is the essential feature of capitalism. John Paul II perceives numerous positive elements in capitalism, but he also sees a few negative ones: “We have found out that the thesis saying that after the defeat of real socialism capitalism remains the only model (logical quantifier) of economic organization is unacceptable.” He does not suggest another model, but generally he states that it is “… a society in which there are: freedom of work, enterprise and participation” that is meant here. He adds: “Economy that does not take into consideration the ethical dimension and does not attempt to serve the good of man – each man and the whole man – in fact does not even deserve the name of «economy» understood as reasonable and benevolent management of material resources”. Although he sees positive elements in the process of globalization, he puts forward an imperative demand to base it on the principle of the dignity of the human person and his rights, and the good of the whole human family (familiae humanae). In the area of economy “ … in the field of economy nobody may insult the human dignity without a punishment, which dignity God himself respects greatly” (Leo XIII).

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Znaczenie i aktualność encykliki Jana XXIII "Pacem in terris"

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Mazurek F. J.

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nr 1

103-116

EN

Recently, there have been two trends in the understanding of natural law in the Thomistic philosophy: a. general understanding - understanding of natural law in terms of main norms ofsocial life; b. making that law more particular - formulating concrete rights and duties, that is. It is in "Pacem in terris" that those two trends converge end are complementary to one another. In view of the dispute over the hierarchy of man’s social rights, it must be emphasized that John XXIII relates these rights to the right to live, which right he places on top of all others. It is characteristic that according to John XXIII in order to put, for instance, the right to just wages into practice, one has to take into consideration "the requirements of common good of all nations /.../ of different character and size". The Pope abandoned the subjective approach to the right to the freedom of conscience and religion, and emphasized its personal dimension. It is not truth that has a right but man has a right to the freedom of conscience. The author proves that John XXIII is not satisfied with the so-called legal protection of man’s rights, he even exposed the extralegal protection: through the structure of an enterprise, international cooperation /L-M/ for the development of all nations and through democratic system. The universalism of man’s rights is not accompanied by universal protection, hence there is a need to establish world authorities. The author claims that the term "familia humana" used in "Pacem in terris" was adopted from Pius XII, but not from the Universal Declaration of Man’s Rights. He also thinks that John XXIII did not accept the 18th century conception of man’s rights but presented a Christian conception of man’s rights.

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Zagadnienie urbanizacji w społecznych dokumentach Kościoła

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Mazurek F. J.

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tom 7

49-61

DE

Der Verfasser beweist, dass Prozesse der Urbanisierung auf verschiedenen Gebieten vorlaufen, und zwar auf einem wirtschaftlichen, demographischen, kulturellen und gesellschaftlichen Gebiet. Dieses Prozess soll unter diesen unterschiedlichen Aspekten bewertet werden. Unter einem wirtschaftlichen Gesichtspunkt kennzeichnet sich die Urbanisierung durch einen ständigen Zuwachs von Zinsen der Menschen, die in ausserlandschaftlichen Berufen tätig sind. Je besser das Land entwickelt ist, desto grösser ist sein Urbanisierungsgrad, in der ersten Phase der Urbanisierung lenkte man grosse Aufmerksamkeit auf Befriedigung der materiellen Bedürfnisse, die heutige Zivilisation enthüllt immer neue Bedürfnisse, die mehr mit „sein" als mit „haben" verbunden sind, woauf Mater et Magistra hinweist Für Ausdruck eines Fortschritts des Humanismus nimmt dieses Dokument das menschliche Streben, mehr einen Beruf und Bildung zu erreichen, als zürn Vermögen zu kommen. Vom Standpunkt der Demographie aus, äussert sich die Urbanisierung im Prozess der Migra tion der Bevölkerung vom Lande in die Stadt. Im Brief des Apostolischen Stuhls vom 11V 1965 an gesellschaftliche Tage in Spanien wurde festgestellt, dass es erfolglos sein wäre, alte paternalistiche Strukturen, in deneu grosse Menschenmenge viele Jahrhunderte lang lebte, zu bedauern. Der Autor beweist, dass sich der Schwerpunkt des Urbanisierungsprozesses unter einem demographischen Gesichtspunkt verschoben hat, und zwar zu den Ländern der dritten Welt wo sich es anders, als in europäischen Ländern im 19 Jahrhundert vollzieht. Die Stadt lockt nicht mehr, sondern das Dorf stosst hinaus. Patologie des Gesellschaftslebens (Rauschgifsucht, Prostitution, Alkoholismus, Zuwachs an Kriminalität) haben ihre Gründe - Autors Meinung nach - nicht so im Mieleu der Stadt als im Mangel an Vorbereitung der Dorfleute zum Leben in einem neuen Milieu der Stadt. Oer Autor meint, dass die. Urbanisierung, die eine unwiderrufliche Stufe in Entwicklung von einer menschlichen Gemeinschaft sei, kann und soll vom Menschen gesteuert werden. Unter einem kultur-gesellschaftlichen Gesichtspunkt vollzieht sich die Urbanisierung als ein neues Lebensstil - Erscheinung von neuen Denkweisen, neuen Bedürfnissen, neuen gesellschaftlichen Verhältnissen Gaudium et spes deutet, dass immer deutlicher das Bewusstsein des Gefühls der Menschenwürde {n 26) und eine übermässige Empfindlichkeit, wenn es um Freiheit geht (n. 4). wachsen Das Prpzess der Urbanisierung begleitet stellt Octogesima Adveniens fest, eine egalitaristische und demokratische Tendenz Die Urbanisierung bringt den Begriff von Freizeit, die zur Vervollkommnung eigener Persönlichkeit und Entwicklung der Kultur ausgenutzt sein (GS n 61) Die Urbanisierung ist ein Prozess der Entstehung eines neuen Weltmusters, und Christen sind verpflichtet, diesem Prozess eine Richtung und einen Inhalt anzugeben. Das Leben in einer Grossstadt hat seine Vor und Nachteile. In der Heiligen Schrift werden Städte oft als Herd des Bösen, des Hochmuts und des Atheismus dargestellt, andererseits wurde Jerusalem zum Bild einer heiligen Stadt, zum Bild des vom Himmel hinabgestegenen (Ap. 3. 12).

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Uniwersalność praw i obowiązków człowieka

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Mazurek F. J.

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nr 1

149-166

EN

The author points at the necessity to work out of universal conception of human rights and duties. In this paper he presents an outline of such a conception. The extant conceptions are partial and imbued with ideologies. They are based on false visions of man. The universal conception of human rights and duties can be worked out in tune with the interdisciplinary studies. The author removes everything that is irrelevant in this field under consideration to show the universal character of human rights and duties by way of dialogical, fundamental, prophetic, and situational criticism. In the dialogical criticism he revises, on the one hand, the current conceptions of freedom and freedom rights, and, on the other, the way in which human social rights are understood as state alms. Talking about the fundamental criticism he emphasizes the fact that the principle of human rights should be taken in its connection with other social principles such as: the principle of person’s dignity, of common good, of auxiliariness, of justice and others. The prophetic criticism is supposed to show not only the aspects of the infringement on human rights, but first of all the mechanisms of their infringement. The situational criticism permits the author to show that the so-called relative character of human rights concerns their hierarchy and modes of their carrying out, which modes are dependent on the history and culture of various nations; the basis of the universal character of human rights and duties is person’s dignity which is a universal value, independent of history, culture and other social-political systems. The author takes the standpoint according to which one cannot present the universal theory of human rights without showing beforehand an integral vision of man. He emphasizes that person’s dignity is an innate, universal and indispensable value. On the basis of this value he formulates a fundamental normative principle of human rights and duties: „persona est affirmanda propter se ipsam”. Secondly, while defining the contents of human rights he refers to the psychosomatic nature of man, which nature is the groundwork of various needs. The basic needs bear a universal character. Yet it is not needs that are human rights, their contents being values capable of fulfilling these needs. It is a human right to be entitled to a certain value (Rechtswert). Thirdly, man should be looked upon as a social being (ens sociale). This kind of approach to man allows to rationally explain the correlation between rights and duties. Fourthly, man cannot be taken as a „small god”, since he is able to do good, but also evil, to build concentration camps, to commit genocide, to steal, to lie and the like. The affairs being as such, we have to state that one cannot talk about absolute, boundless rights of freedom granted to man. They are bounded not so much by the freedom of other individuals as rather by truth and common good. The author is not satisfied with a mere presentation of the universal character of human rights, but also points at the necessity to work out a universal strategy of their defence. He says that it is necessary to establish an international authority and form democratic structures within the world society. The effective and universal defence of human rights may be guaranteed by a solidary cooperation of all nations for the sake of development. Nevertheless the very defence of these rights is already a crucial factor of the social, economic and cultural development of nations.

5

Godność osoby ludzkiej jako wartość absolutna

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Mazurek F. J.

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nr 1

261-271

EN

The author analyzes the relations between various values and he establishes their ultimate criterion and hierarchy. He is of opinion that an incorrectly established criterion of values and an incorrectly constructed and accepted hierarchy of them leads to what Carl Schmitt called − in reference to Nikolai Hartman − the tyranny of value (die Tyrannai der Werte). The author critically appraises the views of those who maintain that there is a conflict, a dilemma or tension between freedom and equality (justice). He shows that the dilemma is not immanent in the mentioned values but in the incorrect conception of freedom as presented by the liberals on the one hand, and in the erroneous (objective) conception of equality as explicated by the Marxists. In fact the dilemma occurs between those philosophical-social trends. Secondly, the dilemma always appears where these values are confronted with each other in the wrong way and separated from other values − especially from the truth about dignity of the human person. And thirdly, in all the views in which it is admitted that there is a conflict between freedom and equality there is a „methodological” error. It consists in the fact that the conflict of interests of individuals or social groups is reduced to tensions between humanistic values − freedom and equality. Egoistic interests are sought to be hidden behind the screen of the values. Freedom without equality (justice) and the truth about dignity of the human person becomes freedom of élites whereas it is a tyrannizing value for most other classes. The situation is analogous in the case of equality without freedom and the truth dignity of the person. The author shows that dignity of the person is the central, absolute value, as the person is related to the Absolute; it is created in God's image and is redeemed by Christ (supernatural dignity). The author also writes about natural dignity to which the mind, conscience and freedom point. All other values, even objective and universal ones − moral norms and human rights − have an adpersonal (relative) character. Accepting freedom or equality as an absolute value without the truth about dignity of the human person lies at the foundations of all forms of totalitarian systems. According to the author dignity of the human person creates an obligation. He formulates the rule: persona est affirmanda propter se ipsam. He shows that dignity of the human person integrates nations as well as the international system of human rights. In the introduction to the United Nations Chart belief in dignity and value of the human person is expressed. In the introductions to both Human Rights Pacts (1966) it is recognized that human rights follow from the inborn dignity of the human person. The notion of dignity of the human person is also found in the constitutions of many countries, e.g. of West Germany (1949). In West German commentaries it is said that dignity of the human person (Art. 1 p. 1) is the highest value (der oberste Wert), it is the norm of norms (Norm der Normen). Dignity of the human person should be − as it not always is − the criterion of all programs and social economic and political systems.

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Stanowisko Kościoła wobec koncepcji praw człowieka okresu Oświecenia i deklaracji z XVIII w.

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Mazurek F. J.

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nr 1

53-83

DE

Der Autor stellt die These, auf, dass die negativen Stellungnahmen der Päpste des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts zu den Menschenrechtskonzeptionen der Aufklärungsperiode /in Frankreich/ und der Deklaration der Menschen- und Bürgerrechte von 1789 eher durch doktrinelle Gründe und die Situation der Kirche in diesem Zeitraum in Frankreich und nicht durch den "Konservatismus“ der Päpste bewirkt wurden. Auch macht er deutlich, dass die Kirche nicht negativ zur amerikanischen Unabhängigkeitserklärung von 1776 Stellung nahm. Er polemisiert mit den Autoren, die der Meinung sind, der Standpunkt des Apostolischen Stuhls zur Deklaration der Menschen- und Bürgerrechte sei negativ gewesen und erst Johannes HIII hätte diese Rechte erst 1963 in "Pacem in terris" akzeptiert. Der Autor zeigt, dass:1. selbst die zeitgenössischen Anhänger einen liberalen Konzeption der Menschenrechte die Konzeption aus dem 18. Jahrhundert nicht unkritisch und vorbehaltlos akzeptieren, dass diese eine weitreichende Evolution durchgemacht hat;2. auch Hegel und danach Marx u.a. diese Konzeption scharf kritisiert haben;3. man es der Kirche nicht zum Vorwurf machen darf, dass sie die Konzeption unbeschränkter Freiheit nicht akzeptiert hat. Schliesslich entstand der Kapitalismus, der im 19. Jahrhundert zu einer schrecklichen Ausbeutung des Proletariats führte, auf den Hintergrund des Liberalismus;4. Johannes XIII. die Konzeption aus dem 18. Jahrhundert in der Enzyklika "Pacem in terris" nicht akzeptiert hat. Gewisse Einwände wurden sogar gegenüber der Allgemeinen Deklaration der Menschenrechte der UNQ von 1948 vorgebracht, in der die freiheitlichen und gesellschaftlichen Rechte enthalten sind;5. sich die Aufmerksamkeit der Kirche seit dem 19. Jahrhundert auf die gesellschaftlichen Rechte konzentriert. Eben dieser Problematik der gesellschaftlichen Rechte des Menschen und keiner anderen war die Enzyklika "Rerum novarum" Leons XIII. von 1891 gewidmet.

7

Profesor Czesław Strzeszewski

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Mazurek F. J.

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nr 1

7-13