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1

Effects of ecological restoration patterns on runoff and sediment in an abandoned coal mine of Southern China

Li Hao, Chen Wenbo, Zhang Cheng, He Lei, Liang Haifen, Li Haifeng, Liu Dingpu

Environment Protection Engineering

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2023

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Vol. 49, nr 4

29--44

EN

Evaluating the ecological economic benefits of different ecological restoration patterns in abandoned mines is important in ecological restoration study. Taking the abandoned coal mine in Luoshi Township of Fengcheng county, Jiangxi province, as a case, 4 different ecological restoration patterns (grapefruit with grass vegetation – Pattern I, pine with grass vegetation – Pattern II, grapefruit – Pattern III, and bare slope – Pattern IV) have been conducted to study the runoff and sediment yield under natural rainfall conditions. The results showed that the ecological restoration patterns and rainfall intensity can significantly affect runoff and sediment yield which increased as rainfall intensity increased: Pattern IV > Pattern III > Pattern II > Pattern I. For the optimal ecological restoration with Pattern I, the average runoff and sediment reduction was 59.01 and 77.1%, respectively, in all rainfall intensities. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) showed that runoff and sediment were significantly affected by ecological restoration pattern and rainfall intensity (P < 0.05). Correlation analysis of runoff and sediment yields indicated that the reduction effect on sediment yield increased with the decrease of runoff, and the relationships between runoff and sediment at different ecological restoration patterns could be fitted with a linear function. Moreover, the vegetation configuration that combines fruit farming with grass can be not only beneficial to control soil and water conservation but produce considerable economic and ecological benefits.

2

Monitoring Vegetation Cover Changes by Sentinel-1 Radar Images Using Random Forest Classification Method

Tran Van Anh, Le Thi Le, Nguyen Nhu Hung, Le Thanh Nghi, Tran Hong Hanh

Inżynieria Mineralna

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2021

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no. 2

441--451

EN

Vietnam is an Asian country with hot and humid tropical climate throughout the year. Forests account for more than 40% of the total land area and have a very rich and diverse vegetation. Monitoring the changes in the vegetation cover is obviously important yet challenging, considering such large varying areas and climatic conditions. A traditional remote sensing technique to monitor the vegetation cover involves the use of optical satellite images. However, in presence of the cloud cover, the analyses done using optical satellite image are not reliable. In such a scenario, radar images are a useful alternative due to the ability of radar pulses in penetrating through the clouds, regardless of day or night. In this study, we have used multi temporal C band satellite images to monitor vegetation cover changes for an area in Dau Tieng and Ben Cat districts of Binh Duong province, Mekong Delta, Vietnam. With a collection of 46 images between March 2015 and February 2017, the changes of five land cover types including vegetation loss and replanting in 2017 were analyzed by selecting two cases, using 9 images in the dry season of 3 years 2015, 2016 and 2017 and using all of 46 images to conduct Random Forest classifier with 100, 200, 300 and 500 trees respectively. The result in which the model with nine images and 300 trees gave the best accuracy with an overall accuracy of 98.4% and a Kappa of 0.97. The results demonstrated that using VH polarization, Sentinel-1 gives quite a good accuracy for vegetation cover change. Therefore, Sentinel-1 can also be used to generate reliable land cover maps suitable for different applications.

3

Wpływ stymulacji sadzeniaków (Solanum tuberosum L.) w polu magnetycznym na wybrane parametry wegetacji roślin ziemniaka

Jakubowski Tomasz

Przegląd Elektrotechniczny

|

2020

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R. 96, nr 1

166--169

PL

Celem pracy było zbadanie wpływu stymulacji sadzeniaków (Solanum tuberosum L.) w zmiennym polu magnetycznym na wybrane parametry wegetacji roślin ziemniaka bardzo wczesnej odmiany Red Sonia (typ ogólnoużytkowy). Sadzeniaki ziemniaka stymulowano w zmiennym polu magnetycznym z wykorzystaniem cewki powietrznej bez rdzenia magnetycznego (solenoidu). Stosowano pole magnetyczne o indukcji w zakresie 20-80 mT oraz czas ekspozycji 1-30 s. Zakresem badań objęto wschody roślin oraz liczbę i długość łodyg roślin ziemniaka. Uzyskane wyniki poddano analizie statystycznej. Wyniki badań wskazują, że pole magnetyczne zastosowane w odniesieniu do sadzeniaków modyfikuje liczbę pędów rośliny ziemniaka. Nie wykazano statycznie istotnego wpływu pola magnetycznego na tempo wschodów roślin oraz długość łodyg.

EN

The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of stimulation of seed potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) in a variable magnetic field on selected vegetation parameters of potato plants of the very early Red Sonia variety (general use type). Potato seed was stimulated in a variable magnetic field using an air coil without a magnetic core (solenoid). A magnetic field with an induction in the range of 20-80 mT and an exposure time of 1-30 s were used. The scope of research included plant emergence and the number and length of potato plant stems. The obtained results were subjected to statistical analysis. The research results indicate that the magnetic field applied to seed potatoes modifies the number of shoots of the potato plant. There was no statistically significant effect of the magnetic field on the rate of plant emergence and stem length.

4

Seed Bank and Vegetation in a Closed Depression in Agricultural Landscape : Relation to Moisture Conditions and Soil Properties

Franczak Magdalena, Franczak Łukasz

Polish Journal of Ecology

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2020

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Vol. 68, nr 3

195--210

EN

The aim of the study was to estimate the effect of habitat factors such as moisture conditions and some physicochemical soil characteristics on the structure of the vegetation and the soil seed bank, and to compare species composition of the vegetation cover and the seed bank along the soil moisture and fertility gradients in closed depression in agricultural landscape. Based on the averaged results of the extent and time of stagnation of the water, along the transect four habitat moisture zones were distinguished (dry, periodically moist, moist, and wet). In eighteen study plots we analysed flora, soil seed bank, and contents of Ca, Mg, K, Mn, Fe and pH of the soil. The analysed closed depression is characterised by high variability in moisture conditions and in the physical and chemical properties of the soil. The most important factors affecting the diversity of the vegetation cover and seed bank were the duration of water stagnation and the content of Fe and Mn in the soil. The lowest plant species richness and the smallest seed resources were determined for the wet zone of the depression. An increase in the habitat moisture level was accompanied by a decline in the floristic similarity between the vegetation cover and the seed bank.

5

Spatiotemporal variability in spate irrigation systems in Khirthar National Range, Sindh, Pakistan (case study)

Soomro Abdul Ghani, Babar Muhammad Munir, Arshad Muhammad, Memon Anila, Naeem Babar, Ashraf Arshad

Acta Geophysica

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2020

|

Vol. 68, no. 1

219--228

EN

Satellite remote sensing and geographical information system (GIS) have been used successfully to monitor and assess the land use and land cover (LULC) dynamics and their impacts on people and the environment. LULC change detection is essential for studying spatiotemporal conditions and for proposing better future planning and development options. The current research analyzes the detection of spatiotemporal variability of spate irrigation systems using remote sensing and GIS in the Khirthar National Range, Sindh Province of Pakistan. We use Landsat images to study the dynamics of LULC using ArcGIS software and categorize fve major LULC types. We obtain secondary data related to precipitation and crop yield from the provincial department of revenue. The maximum likelihood supervised classifcation (MLSC) procedure, augmented with secondary data, reveals a signifcant increase of 86.25% in settlements, 83.85% in spate irrigation systems, and 65% in vegetation, and a substantial negative trend of 39.50% in water bodies and 20% in barren land during the period from 2013 to 2018. Our study highlights an increase in settlements due to the infow of local population for better means of living and an increase in spate irrigation systems, which indicates the water conservation practices for land cultivation and human purpose lead to the shrinkage of water bodies. The confusion matrix using Google Earth data to rectify modeled (classifed) data, which showed an overall accuracy of 82.8%–92%, and the Kappa coefcient estimated at 0.80–0.90 shows the satisfactory results of the LULC classifcation. The study suggests the need to increase water storage potential with the appropriate water conservation techniques to enhance the spate irrigation system in the hilly tracts for sustainable develop‑ ments, which mitigates drought impact and reduces migration rate by providing more opportunities through agricultural activities in the study area.

6

Space and time variability of meteorological drought in Syria

Mohammed Safwan, Alsafadi Karam, Al-Awadhi Talal, Sherief Youssef, Harsanyie Endre, El Kenawy Ahmed M.

Acta Geophysica

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2020

|

Vol. 68, no. 6

1877--1898

EN

This study assesses the spatial and temporal characteristics (e.g., frequency, intensity, spatial extent) of meteorological drought in Syria. Specifcally, drought was characterized using the observed rainfall data from 36 rain gauges spanning the period between 1990 and 2010 and covering the main climatic regions in Syria (i.e., Mediterranean, arid, semiarid and mountainous). Meteorological drought was assessed using the standardized precipitation index (SPI) at 12-month timescale, allowing for detecting the impacts of climate variability on agricultural droughts. The dominant modes of drought were defned using an S-mode of the principal component analysis. To assess the links between meteorological drought evolution and vegetation greening in Syria, the time series of SPI were correlated with the normalized diference vegetation index (NDVI). Time series of NDVI were retrieved from the remotely sensed National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Advanced Very High-Resolution Radiometer (NOAA/AVHRR) sensor at a spatial resolution of 25 km for the common period 1990–2010. Trend analysis suggests a statistically signifcant increase in the frequency and intensity of drought at 12-month timescale. The observed intensifcation of meteorological drought is mostly associated with the increase in mild and moderate droughts, relative to extremes and very extreme droughts. Results also suggest a statistically signifcant decrease (p<0.05) in vegetation greening over Syria during the study period, especially in the eastern parts of the country. Our results demonstrate that the decrease in vegetation cover can directly be linked to the anomalous drought events, with Pearson’ r coefcients generally above 0.6. This dependency was more highlighted during wintertime for the Mediterranean vegetation and in northeastern portions of the country. Overall, the increase in the frequency and intensity of meteorological drought, combined with a series of unrest and political instability, have drastic impacts on the agricultural sector in Syria, with serious implications for crop yield

7

The effect of vegetation character on abundance and structure of subpopulations of rare herb species Gentiana pneumonanthe L.

Kostrakiewicz-Gierałt K.

Polish Journal of Ecology

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2013

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Vol. 61, nr 1

35--46

EN

During the 20th century in Central and Eastern Europe, traditional agricultural management was either heavily intensified or abandoned due to socio-economic reasons. The land abandonment led to subsequent secondary succession reverted many wet meadows into Phragmites swamps, Salix or Alnus thickets, as well as woodlands. Therefore, the understanding of changes in abundance and structure of populations in the process of succession has become very important especially for rare and endangered species. In Poland one of strictly protected plant is Gentiana pneumonanthe L. It is a nonclonal, long-lived, iteroparous plant consisted of numerous vegetative and generative stems, bearing 1–25 flowers per year. The investigations of abundance and structure of subpopulations of Gentiana pneumonanthe were conducted in the years 2009–2011 in abandoned Molinietum caeruleae meadows dominated by low-stature species (Patch I), prevailed by tall grasses (Patch II), willows (Patch III), as well as partly overgrown by shrubs and trees (Patch IV). The average height of vegetation cover achieved from 65.3 cm (Patch I), via 85.8 cm (Patch II) and 94.0 cm (Patch III), to 142.7 cm (Patch IV). The gradually decline of abundance of Gentiana pneumonathe subpopulations and increased trend toward their senilization along the gradient of vegetation height might be due to successional closure of plant cover, preventing seedling recruitment. The total number of stems per individual and length of vegetative stems decreased with augmentation of neighbouring plants dimensions, whereas the height of generative stems, as well as flower and fruit production presented inversed trend. The greatest dimensions of capsules found in patch dominated by small meadow species might be due to greater availability of solar radiation. The conditions of studied subpopulations decrease gradually from patch dominated by small meadow species, via sites prevailed by grasses and willows, to place overgrown by shrubs and trees. Although obvious differences in abundance and structure of individuals, the prospects of all observed populations are poor, especially that patches are not subjected active protection.

8

Wpływ promieniowania ultrafioletowego na wzrost, rozwój i plonowanie roślin ziemniaka (badania wstępne)

Jakubowski T., Pytlowski T.

Inżynieria Rolnicza

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2013

|

R. 17, nr 3, t. 1

99--107

PL

Celem pracy było zbadanie wpływu promieniowania ultrafioletowego (UVC) na wzrost, rozwój i plonowanie roślin ziemniaka (Solanum tuberosum L). Obiektem badań były 132 rośliny ziemniaka średnio późnej odmiany Jelly, których wegetacja przebiegała pod osłoną tunelu foliowego. W doświadczeniu wykorzystano autorskie stanowisko do naświetlania materiału roślinnego ultrafioletem. Sadzeniaki przed umieszczeniem w glebie naświetlono promieniami ultrafioletowymi przez czas 1, 10, 60 min przy stałej odległości promiennika UVC od dna komory 0,7 m. W trakcie okresu wegetacji oceniano tempo wschodów, kwitnienia i zamierania łętów, określano długość i liczbę łodyg, a po zbiorze określono strukturę plonu każdej rośliny. Stwierdzono istotny wpływ ultrafioletu na rozwój części nadziemnej roślin ziemniaka. Obliczenia statystyczne wykonano przy założonym poziomie istotności α=0,05.

EN

The aim of the paper was investigation of ultraviolet radiation (UVC) impact on the growth, development and cropping of potato plants (Solanum tuberosum L). 132 potato plants of medium late cultivar Jelly, vegetation of which was carried out under the plastic tunnel constituted the research object. The author's stand for irradiation of plant material with ultraviolet was used. Seed potatoes, before placing them in the soil, were radiated with ultraviolet rays for 1,10,60 minutes at the constant distance of UVC radiators from the bottom of a chamber - 0.7 m. During vegetation period the rate of germination, flowering and withering of haulms, length and number of stems was determined and after harvesting the yield structure of each plant was determined. Essential impact of ultraviolet on the development of aboveground part of potato plants was reported. Statistical calculations were carried out at the assumed level of significance α=0.05.

9

Vegetation in recognition of changes in earth remote sensing images

Areshkina L.

Journal of Research and Applications in Agricultural Engineering

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2011

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Vol. 56, nr 3

7-14

EN

The method has been developed for recognition of changes, caused by vegetation, using the Earth remote sensing data obtained at different points of time. The method includes automatic calculation of brightness groups in segments of changes for each range in the multizonal image. Also, the problem of the spatial multispectral decomposition is resolved with regard to the areas of changes caused by vegetation, with the automatic selection of the object's components homogeneous in terms of their reflection properties.

10

Long-term changes in the size, structure and location of whiskered tern Chlidonias hybrida (L.) nests in deteriorating environmental conditions of a North African lake

Bakaria F., Benyacoub S., Gauthier-Clerc M., Bańbura J.

Polish Journal of Ecology

|

2009

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Vol. 57, nr 4

749-759

EN

Long-term changes in wetland habitats have been lately reported all over the world. Global warming and, in particular, irrigation and eutrophication of shallow lakes cause changes in vegetation, often in directions differing from the natural ecological succession. As a result, from the viewpoint of waterbirds, their nesting habitats deteriorate, which leads to changes in their breeding biology and distribution. In this paper the nesting of Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybrida (L.) was studied in changing habitat of Lake Tonga, the El-Kala National Park, NE Algeria in 1996 and 2005.2006. Since the 1960s, there has been a clear trend of extensive development of emergent and floating-leaved vegetation, with up to 80% of the lake surface being currently covered during summer. Nesting colonies of Whiskered Terns are mostly connected with beds of the white water-lily (Nymphaea alba L.). The average distance of breeding colonies from the shore line increased from 176 m in 1966 to 786 m in 2005 and 933 m in 2006. Over the study period, average nest size got twice smaller. Nest diameter was on the average 470 mm in 1996 and 236 mm in 2005.2006. The nests also changed shape and composition. The size and shape of nests were correlated with measures of their composition. Variables characterizing size, shape and composition of nests indeed differed in response to ecological variation of habitat between and within years. Our results suggest that the main function of Whiskered Tern nests is providing a firm support for eggs, incubating adults and young nestlings, which would correspond to the nest support hypothesis of Collias and Collias (1984). Nest size was influenced by ecological conditions in two ways: directly, by changing the availability of construction materials, and indirectly, by changing the distribution of colonies and, thus, physical conditions for nests. We also suggest that some components of the changes in nest size, shape and composition may be linked with the social and sexual signaling system of Whiskered Terns.

11

Late Glacial and Holocene history of vegetation at Osłonki (Kujawy, Central Poland)

Nalepka D.

Folia Quaternaria

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2008

|

nr 78

33-44

EN

Changes from unforested area during Bolling (Late Glacial) up to forested one during Atlantic (Holocene) time in south Kujawy region was done by pollen analysis. The influence of early Neolithic farmers (Linear Pottery culture, Lengyel culture and Globular Amphorae culture) on the vegetation cover was characterized, as well as the agriculture near the archaeological site at Osłonki was interpreted on the basis of pollen analysis.

12

Wpływ nawożenia mineralnego na występowanie zarazy ziemniaka podczas wegetacji oraz na zawartość azotanów (v) w bulwach ziemniaka

Czajka W. W., Żołnowski A. C., Trojak , A.

Inżynieria Ekologiczna

|

2006

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Nr 17

31-33

13

Plant-to-soil pathways in the subarctic - qualitative and quantitative changes of different vegetative fluxes

Gorbacheva T. T., Kikuchi R.

Environmental Biotechnology

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2006

|

Vol. 2, No. 1

26-30

EN

Considering plant-to-soil pathways, decomposition of vegetative fluxes such as litter and litterfall is one of the important processes that adjust the carbon cycle and nutritional elements in the formation of a forest's organogenic horizon. However, there is little information available on this subject, and the fractional structure (amount, type and interrelation) of organic matter also seems to receive little attention. Using 7 different vegetative samples, a field study was performed over 3 years to find the relation between phenolics content and mass losses in the subarctic region (N66° and E31°). In addition, climate effects on this relation were investigated. The data obtained from this field study testify that (i) an intensive loss of organic matter occurred in active parts of various litterfalls and (ii) leached phenols were related with mass losses (decomposition rates) of vegetative fluxes (litterfalls and litters) to the soil. The statistic analysis suggests that (iii) total mass losses of samples (except litter) were connected with both the temperature sum and the precipitation sum, and (iv) phenolics losses also had a similar trend in different kinds of litterfall.

14

Ocena zawartości makro- i mikroelementów w organach wegetatywnych i owocach jabłoni

Jarocinski B. Z.

Inżynieria Ekologiczna

|

2005

|

Nr 12

274-276

15

Wpływ pola magnetycznego na wegetację roślin ozdobnych

Czemplik S., Wilczyński W., Talik S., Szubzda B.

Nowa Elektrotechnika

|

2004

|

nr 3

6

16

Wpływ pola magnetycznego na wegetację roślin ozdobnych

Talik S., Czemplik S., Szubzda B., Wilczyński W.

Prace Naukowe Instytutu Podstaw Elektrotechniki i Elektrotechnologii Politechniki Wrocławskiej. Konferencje

|

2003

|

Vol. 38, nr 13

285-288

PL

W artykule zostały przedstawione wyniki badań wpływu pola magnetycznego na wegetację roślin kwitnących. Eksperyment został przeprowadzony na przykładzie szczawika Deppego (Oxalis deppei Lodd.ex Swcet). Przed badaniami rośliny podzielono na kilka grup. Pierwszą z nich była grupa kontrolna, w której rośliny w żaden sposób nie były poddawane oddziaływaniu pola magnetycznego. Dwie grupy roślin były podlewane wodą poddaną wcześniej ekspozycji w polu magnetycznym. Pozostałe grupy roślin poddawano bezpośredniemu oddziaływaniu stałego pola magnetycznego przez cały okres wegetacyjny. Eksperyment wykonano dla różnych wartości natężenia pola. Określono ilościowo i jakościowo części nadziemne roślin, policzono ilość liści i kwiatostanów, zmierzono ich długość oraz zważono świeżą i suchą masę. Na podstawie otrzymanych wyników i analiz wykazano wpływ pola magnetycznego na rozwój generatywny i wegetatywny roślin.

EN

The results of the research on the influence of magnetic field on ornamental plants vegetation have been presented. Experiment has been done for Oxalis deppei Lodd.ex Sweet. Research has been conducted in two ways: four groups of plants grew in magnetic field and two groups of plants watered by water kept in magnetic field before using, last group was kept in normal conditions (without magnetic field). Results presented influence of magnetic field on vegetative and generative evaluation of plants.

17

Szata roślinna miasta Kłobucka. [Cz.] II. Zbiorowiska nieleśne

Kurkowska M., Cabała S.

Archiwum Ochrony Środowiska

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2003

|

Vol. 29, no. 3

115--127

PL

Badaniami fitosocjologicznymi objęto miasto Kłobuck wraz z otuliną usytuowanych w województwie śląskim. W sezonie wegetacyjnym 1989-1999 wykonano w zbiorowiskach zielnych 35 zdjęć fitosocjologicznych metodą Braun-Blanqueta. W wyniku przeprowadzonej analizy wyodrębniono na badanym terenie 14 zbiorowisk roślinnych, z których 10 zaklasyfikowano do zespołu. Są to: zbiorowisko z L.enma minor, Nupharo-Nymphaeeturn albae, Sparganietum erecti, Phragrnitetum australis, Typhetum latifoliae, Glycerietum maxintae, Pltalaridetum arundinaceae, zbiorowisko z Jasione montarta, zbiorowisko z Deschampsia caespitosa, zbiorowisko z Holcus lanntus, Filipendulo-Geranietum, Scirpetum silvatici, Epilobio-Juncetum effusi, Arrhenathereteum eleatioris.

EN

Phytosociological research was carried out in the town of Kłobuck, Silesian voivodeship. During the years 1998 and 1999 35 releves were taken using Braun-Blanquet method. In the study area 14 plant herb communities were distinguished, 10 of which were classified as associations. These are: community with Lenma minor, Nupltaro-Nymphaeetum albae, Sparganietum erecti, Phragmitetum australis, Typhetum latifoliae, Glycerietum maxintae, Pltalaridetum arundinaceae, community with Jasione rnontana, community with Deschampsia eaespitosa, community wich Holcus lanatus, P'ilipendulo-Geranietum, Scirpetum silvatici, Epilobio-Juncetum effusi, Arrhenatheretunt eleatioris.

18

Rola retencyjności roślinności niskiej w formowaniu odpływu

Nahorecka-Duda H., Ratomska B.

Czasopismo Techniczne. Środowisko

|

2002

|

R. 99, z. 5-Ś

111--118

EN

The results of investigation on low vegetation interception role in flood generation are presented in the paper. The values of interception of low vegetation ranges from 10% to 30% of the prcipitation. Based on variable cover parameters (interception capacity and density), interception losses were calculated for individual floods. These values enabled runoff balance components and, consequently, catchment retention depth to be calculated. Low vegetation characteristics are presented along with a description of rainwater retention process on the plant surface, and an analysis of flood hydrograph with low vegetation interception loss influence on the magnitude of retention.

19

Drzewa i krzewy ozdobne poza okresem wegetacji

Szydło W.

Przegląd Komunalny

|

2001

|

nr 8

78-79

PL

Koniec okresu wegetacji nieuchronnie zapowiada nadejście miesięcy późnojesiennych, zimowych i wczesnowiosennych, kiedy większość drzew i krzewów ozdobnych stosowanych w zieleni miejskiej przedstawia raczej smutny obraz. Dotyczy to szczególnie takich krajów jak Polska, gdzie ze względu na ostry klimat bardzo małe znaczenie mają rośliny liściaste zimozielone.

20

Wpływ pola magnetycznego na wegetację roślin

Szubzda B., Wilczyński W., Kordas R., Kordas L.

Prace Naukowe Instytutu Podstaw Elektrotechniki i Elektrotechnologii Politechniki Wrocławskiej. Konferencje

|

1998

|

Vol. 34, nr 10

95-98

PL

W artykule przedstawiono wyniki badań oddziaływania pola magnetycznego na kiełkowanie i początkową wegetację owsa. W eksperymencie część nasion poddano ekspozycji w silnym polu magnetycznym, a następnie określono podstawowe parametry początkowego wzrostu roślin. Inną część nasion wysiano bez wcześniejszego oddziaływania pola, natomiast samą wegetację prowadzono w polu magnetycznym. Określono zdolność kiełkowania, wysokość i masę roślin po 14 dniach wegetacji. Wyniki porównano z identyczną próbką poddaną wpływowi pola magnetycznego.

EN

In this article influence of magnetic field on seed plot, germination process and first development stage of oats carried out in laboratory conditions was presented. The oat kernels established influence of outside magnetic field in two ways: before germination, and during germination in the first evolution period. The plants were characterised of higher growth and more green and dry matter