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Growth and characterisation of LWIR T2SL on (100)-, (211)- and (311)-oriented GaSb substrates

Lubyshev Dmitri, Fastenau Joel M., Kattner Michael, Frey Philip, Nelson Scott A., Flick Ryan, Wu Ying, Liu Amy W. K., Szymanski Dennis E., Martinez Becky, Furlong Mark J., Dennis Richard, Bundas Jason, Sundaram Mani

Opto-Electronics Review

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2023

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Vol. 31, Special Issue

art. no. e144568

EN

Ga-free InAs/InAsSb type-II superlattice structures grown on GaSb substrates have demonstrated high performance for mid-wave infrared applications. However, realisation of long wavelength infrared photodetectors based on this material system still presents challenges, especially in terms of reduced quantum efficiency. This reduction is due, in part, to the increased type-II superlattice period required to attain longer wavelengths, as thicker periods decrease the wave-function overlap for the spatially separated quantum wells. One way to improve long wavelength infrared performance is to modify the type-II superlattice designs with a shorter superlattice period for a given wavelength, thereby increasing the wave-function overlap and the resulting optical absorption. Long wavelength infrared epitaxial structures with reduced periods have been realised by shifting the lattice constant of the type-II superlattice from GaSb to AlSb. Alternatively, epitaxial growth on substrates with orientations different than the traditional (100) surface presents another way for superlattice period reduction. In this work, the authors evaluate the performance of long wavelength infrared type-II superlattice detectors grown by molecular beam epitaxy using two different approaches to reduce the superlattice period: first, a metamorphic buffer to target the AlSb lattice parameter, and second, structures lattices matched to GaSb using substrates with different orientations. The use of the metamorphic buffer enabled a ~30% reduction in the superlattice period compared to reference baseline structures, maintaining a high quantum efficiency, but with the elevated dark current related to defects generated in the metamorphic buffer. Red-shift in a cut-off wavelength obtained from growths on highindex substrates offers a potential path to improve the infrared photodetector characteristics. Focal plane arrays were fabricated on (100), (311)A- and (211)B-oriented structures to compare the performance of each approach.

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Recent infrared detector technologies, applications, trends and development of HgCdTe based cooled infrared focal plane arrays and their characterization

Bhan R. K., Dhar Vikram

Opto-Electronics Review

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2019

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Vol. 27, No. 2

174--193

EN

Infrared thermal imaging, using cooled and uncooled detectors, is continuously gaining attention because of its wide military and civilian applications. Futuristic requirements of high temperature operation, multispectral imaging, lower cost, higher resolution (using pixels) etc. are driving continuous developments in the field. Although there are good reviews in the literature by Rogalski [1–4], Martyniuk et al. [5] and Rogalski et al. [6] on various types of infrared detectors and technologies, this paper focuses on some of the important recent trends and diverse applications in this field and discusses some important fundamentals of these detectors.

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Semiconductor detectors and focal plane arrays for far-infrared imaging

Rogalski A.

Opto-Electronics Review

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2013

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Vol. 21, No. 4

406-426

EN

The detection of far-infrared (far-IR) and sub-mm-wave radiation is resistant to the commonly employed techniques in the neighbouring microwave and IR frequency bands. In this wavelength detection range the use of solid state detectors has been hampered for the reasons of transit time of charge carriers being larger than the time of one oscillation period of radiation. Also the energy of radiation quanta is substantially smaller than the thermal energy at room temperature and even liquid nitrogen temperature. The realization of terahertz (THz) emitters and receivers is a challenge because the frequencies are too high for conventional electronics and the photon energies are too small for classical optics. Development of semiconductor focal plane arrays started in seventies last century and has revolutionized imaging systems in the next decades. This paper presents progress in far-IR and sub-mm-wave semiconductor detector technology of focal plane arrays during the past twenty years. Special attention is given on recent progress in the detector technologies for real-time uncooled THz focal plane arrays such as Schottky barrier arrays, field-effect transistor detectors, and microbolometers. Also cryogenically cooled silicon and germanium extrinsic photoconductor arrays, and semiconductor bolometer arrays are considered.

4

History of infrared detectors

Rogalski A.

Opto-Electronics Review

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2012

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Vol. 20, No. 3

279-308

EN

This paper overviews the history of infrared detector materials starting with Herschel's experiment with thermometer on February 11th, 1800. Infrared detectors are in general used to detect, image, and measure patterns of the thermal heat radiation which all objects emit. At the beginning, their development was connected with thermal detectors, such as thermocouples and bolometers, which are still used today and which are generally sensitive to all infrared wavelengths and operate at room temperature. The second kind of detectors, called the photon detectors, was mainly developed during the 20th Century to improve sensitivity and response time. These detectors have been extensively developed since the 1940's. Lead sulphide (PbS) was the first practical IR detector with sensitivity to infrared wavelengths up to ~3 µm. After World War II infrared detector technology development was and continues to be primarily driven by military applications. Discovery of variable band gap HgCdTe ternary alloy by Lawson and co-workers in 1959 opened a new area in IR detector technology and has provided an unprecedented degree of freedom in infrared detector design. Many of these advances were transferred to IR astronomy from Departments of Defence research. Later on civilian applications of infrared technology are frequently called "dual-use technology applications." One should point out the growing utilisation of IR technologies in the civilian sphere based on the use of new materials and technologies, as well as the noticeable price decrease in these high cost technologies. In the last four decades different types of detectors are combined with electronic readouts to make detector focal plane arrays (FPAs). Development in FPA technology has revolutionized infrared imaging. Progress in integrated circuit design and fabrication techniques has resulted in continued rapid growth in the size and performance of these solid state arrays.

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Type-II InAs/GaSb photodiodes and focal plane arrays aimed at high operating temperatures

Razeghi M., Abdollahi Pour S., Huang E. K., Chen G., Haddadi A., Nguyen B. M.

Opto-Electronics Review

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2011

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Vol. 19, No. 3

261-269

EN

Recent efforts to improve the performance of type II InAs/GaSb superlattice photodiodes and focal plane arrays (FPA) have been reviewed. The theoretical bandstructure models have been discussed first. A review of recent developments in growth and characterization techniques is given. The efforts to improve the performance of MWIR photodiodes and focal plane arrays (FPAs) have been reviewed and the latest results have been reported. It is shown that these improvements has resulted in background limited performance (BLIP) of single element photodiodes up to 180 K. FPA shows a constant noise equivalent temperature difference (NEDT) of 11 mK up to 120 K and it shows human body imaging up to 170 K.

6

Terahertz detectors and focal plane arrays

Rogalski A., Sizov F.

Opto-Electronics Review

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2011

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Vol. 19, No. 3

346-404

EN

Terahertz (THz) technology is one of emerging technologies that will change our life. A lot of attractive applications in security, medicine, biology, astronomy, and non-destructive materials testing have been demonstrated already. However, the realization of THz emitters and receivers is a challenge because the frequencies are too high for conventional electronics and the photon energies are too small for classical optics. As a result, THz radiation is resistant to the techniques commonly employed in these well established neighbouring bands. In the paper, issues associated with the development and exploitation of THz radiation detectors and focal plane arrays are discussed. Historical impressive progress in THz detector sensitivity in a period of more than half century is analyzed. More attention is put on the basic physical phenomena and the recent progress in both direct and heterodyne detectors. After short description of general classification of THz detectors, more details concern Schottky barrier diodes, pair braking detectors, hot electron mixers and field-effect transistor detectors, where links between THz devices and modern technologies such as micromachining are underlined. Also, the operational conditions of THz detectors and their upper performance limits are reviewed. Finally, recent advances in novel nanoelectronic materials and technologies are described. It is expected that applications of nanoscale materials and devices will open the door for further performance improvement in THz detectors.

7

Readout electronics for optical detectors

Bielecki Z.

Opto-Electronics Review

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2004

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Vol. 12, No. 1

129-137

EN

A review of readouts electronics for optical detectors is presented. General requirements for scientific infrared focal plane arrays readout are discussed. Specific approaches to the unit cell electronics are described with respect to operation, complexity, noise, and other operating parameters.

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Optical detectors for focal plane arrays

Rogalski A.

Opto-Electronics Review

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2004

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Vol. 12, No. 2

221-245

EN

The paper presents progress in optical detector technologies during the past 25 years. Classification of two types of detectors (photon detectors and thermal detectors) is done on the basis of their principle of operation. The overview of optical material systems and detectors is presented. Also recent progress in different technologies is described. Discussion is focused mainly on current and the most rapidly developing focal plane arrays using: CdZnTe detectors, AlGaN photodiodes, visible CCD and CMOS imaging systems, HgCdTe heterostructure photodiodes, quantum well AlGaAs/GaAs photoresistors, and thermal detectors. The outlook for near-future trends in IR technologies is also presented.

9

IR detection with uncooled focal plane arrays. State-of-the art and trends

Tissot J. L.

Opto-Electronics Review

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2004

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Vol. 12, No. 1

105--109

EN

The emergence of uncooled detectors has opened new opportunities for IR detection for both military and commercial applications. Development of such devices involves a lot of trade-offs between the different parameters that define the technological stack. These trade-offs explain the number of different architectures that are under worldwide development. The key factor is to find a high sensitivity and low noise thermometer material compatible with silicon technology in order to achieve high thermal isolation in the smallest area as possible. Ferroelectric thermometer based on hybrid technology and electrical resistive thermometer based (microbolometer) technology are under development. However, ferroelectric material suffers from the difficulty to achieve a high figure of merit from thin film that is needed for monolithic structure development. Besides, the microbolometer technology, well adapted for thin film process, leads to higher performance at the expense of more complex readout integrated circuit design. LETI and ULIS have been chosen from the very beginning to develop first, a monolithic microbolometer technology fully compatible with commercially available CMOS technology and secondly, amorphous silicon based thermometer. This silicon approach has the greatest potential for reducing infrared detector manufacturing cost. After the development of the technology, the transfer to industrial facilities has been performed in a short period of time and the production is now ramping up with ULIS team in new facilities. LETI and ULIS are now working to facilitate the IRFPA integration into equipment in order to address a very large market. Achievement of this goal needs the development of smart sensors with on-chip advanced functions and the decrease in manufacturing cost of IRFPA by decreasing the pixel pitch and simplifying the vacuum package. We present in this paper the new designs for readout circuit and packages that will be used for 384×288 and 160×120 arrays with a pitch of 35 um and advanced results on 35 žm pixel pitch arrays. Thermographic application needs high stable infrared detector with a precise determination of the amount of absorbed infrared flux. Hence, infrared detector with internal temperature stabilized shield has been developed and characterised. The results will be presented.

10

Detection of optical radiation

Rogalski A., Bielecki Z.

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Technical Sciences

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2004

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Vol. 52, nr 1

43-66

EN

An overview of the important techniques for detection of optical radiation from the ultraviolet, through visible to infrared spectral regions is presented. At the beginning single-point devices are considered. Next, different application circuits used in direct detection systems together with elucidation of the design of front-end circuits and discussion of their performance are presented. Third part of the paper is devoted to advanced techniques including coherent detection. Finally, the updated information devoted to readout of signals from detector arrays and focal plane arrays is included. It is shown that detector focal plane technology has revolutionized many kinds of imaging in the past 25 years.

11

HgCdTe epilayers on GaAs : growth and devices

Varavin V. S., Vasiliev V. V., Dvoretsky S. A., Mikhailov N. N., Ovsyuk V. N., Sidorov Y. G., Suslyakov A. O., Yakushev M. V., Aseev A. L.

Opto-Electronics Review

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2003

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Vol. 11, No. 2

99-111

EN

View of basic and specific physical and chemical features of growth and defect formation in mercury cadmium telluride (MTC) heterostructures (HS's) on GaAs substrates by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) was made. On the basis of this knowledge a new generation of ultra high vacuum set, ultra-fast ellipsometer of high accuracy and automatic system for control of technological processes was produced for reproducibility of growth MCT HS's on substrates up to 4'' in diameter. The development of industrially oriented technology of MCT HS's growth by MBE on GaAs substrates 2'' in diameter and without intentional doping is presented. The electrical characteristics of n-type and p-type of MCT HS's and uniformity of MCT composition over the surface area are excellent. The residual donor and acceptor centres are supposed as hypothetically tellurium atoms in metalic sublattice ("antisite" tellurium) and double-ionised mercury vacancies. The technology of fabricating focal plane arrays is developed. The high quality characteristics of infrared detectors conductance and diode mode are measured. Calculations of detector parameters predicted the improvement in serial resistance and detectivity of infrared diode detectors based on MCT heterostructures with graded composition throughout the thickness.

12

HgCdTe infrared detectors

Norton P.

Opto-Electronics Review

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2002

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Vol. 10, No. 3

159-174

EN

HgCdTe infrared detectors have been intensively developed over the past forty years since the first synthesis of this compound semiconductor in 1958. Today, HgCdTe is the most widely used infrared detector material. This paper reviews key developments in the crystal growth and device history of this important technology. Projections and challenges for the continued evolution of this technology are summarized

13

Recent developments and applications of quantum well infrared photodetector focal plane arrays

Gunapala S. D., Bandara S. V., Liu J. K., Luong E. M., Rafol S. B., Mumolo J. M., Ting D. Z., Bock J. J., Ressler M. E., Werner M. W., Levan P. D., Chehayeb R., Kukkonen C. A., Levy M., Levan P., Fauci M. A.

Opto-Electronics Review

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2001

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Vol. 9, No. 2

150-163

EN

One of the simplest device realisations of the calssic particle-in-the-box problem of basic quantum mechanics is the quantum well infrared photodetector (QWIP). In this paper we discuss the effect of focal plane array non-uniformity on the performance, optimisation of the detector design, material growth and processing that has culminated in realisation of large format long-wavelength QWIP cameras, holding forth great promise for many applications in 6-18 micron wavelength range in science, medicine, defence and industry. In addition, we present the recent developments in long-wavelength/very long-wavelength dualband QWIP imaging camera for various applications.

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Infrared detectors at the beginning of the next millennium

Rogalski A.

Opto-Electronics Review

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2001

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Vol. 9, No. 2

173-187

EN

The paper presents progress in infrared (IR) detector technologies during two hundred history of their development. Classification of two types of infrared detectors (photon detectors and thermal detectors) is done on the basis of their principle of operation. The overview of infrared systems and detectors is presented. Recent progress in different IR technologies is described from a historical point of view. Discussion is focused mainly on current and the most rapidly developing detectors: HgCdTe heterostructure photodiodes, quantum well AlGaAs/GaAs photoresistors, and thermal detectors. The outlook for near-future trends in IR technologies is also presented.

15

Sharp infrared eyes: the journey of QWIPs from concept to large inexpensive sensitive arrays in hand-held infrared cameras

Gunapala S., Bandara S., Liu J., Sundaram M.

Opto-Electronics Review

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1999

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Vol. 7, No. 4

271-282

EN

Arguably one of the simplest device realizations of the classic particle-in-a-box problem of basic quantum mechanics is the Quantum Well Infrared Photodetector (QWIP). Optimization of the detector design and material growth and processing has culminated in the realization of a portable infrared camera with a large (256 x 256 pixel ) focal plane array of QWIPs which can see at 8.5 um, holding forth great promise for a variety of applications in the 8-14 um wavelength range. In this paper we discuss the physics and technology of the QWIP and report on the performance of the world's first hand-held infrared camera at these long wavelengths.

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Device physics and focal plane array applications of QWIP and MCT

Tidrow M. Z., Beck W. A., Clark W. W., Pollehn H. K., Little J. W., Dhar N. K., Leavitt R. P., Kennerly S. W., Beekman D. W., Goldberg A. C., Dyer W. R.

Opto-Electronics Review

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1999

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Vol. 7, No. 4

283-296

EN

Infrared (IR) sensor technology is critical to many commercial and military defense applications. Traditionally, cooled infrared material systems such as indium antimonide, platinum silicide, mercury cadmium telluride (MCT), and arsenic doped silicon (Si:As) have dominated infrared detection. Improvement in surveillance sensors and interceptor seekers requires size, highly uniform, and multicolor IR focal plane arrays involving medium wave, long wave, and very long wave IR (VLWIR) regions. Among the competing technologies are the quantum well infrared photodetectors (QWIPs) based on lattice matched or strained III-V material systems. This paper discusses cooled IR technology with emphasis on QWIP and MCT. Detais will be given concerning device physics, material growth, device fabrication, device performance, and cost effectiveness for LWIR, VLWIR, and multicolor focal plane array applications.

17

512x512 element GeSi/Si heterojunction infrared focal plane array

Wada H., Nagashima M., Hayashi K., Nakanishi J., Kimata M., Kumada N., Ito S.

Opto-Electronics Review

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1999

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Vol. 7, No. 4

305-311

EN

We have developed a monolithic 512x512 element GeSi/Si heterojunction infrared focal plane array (FPA). The operation mechanism of the GeSi/Si heterojunction detector is the same as that of the PtSi/Si Schottky- barrier detector. We have fabricated the GeSi/Si heterojunction using molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) technology, and have confirmed that ideal strained GeSi films are grown on Si substrates. We have evaluated the dependencies of spectral responsivity on the Ge composition, impurity concentration and GeSi thickness, and have optimized them for 8-12 um infrared detection. The 512x512 element FPA has a pixel size of 34 x 34 um2 and a fill factor of 59%. A low noise equivalent temperature difference of 0.08 K ( f/2.0 ) was obtained with a 300 K background with a very small responsivity dispersion of 2.2%.