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1

Removal of Heavy Metals from Textile Wastewater Using a Mixture of Carbon from Bare Hands and Carbide Waste as an Adsorbent

Karim Muhammad Arief, Yuniar Henny, Lestari Chelsie Camari, Widowati Tri Wardani

Journal of Ecological Engineering

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2024

|

Vol. 25, nr 1

245--255

EN

Heavy metal pollution, mainly originating from textile waste containing synthetic dyes and stabilizers such as Fe, alum, and lime, poses serious risks to health and the environment. To overcome this problem, this research explores the use of activated carbon for heavy metal reduction. Empty palm oil fruit bunches (EFB) offer a promising source of activated carbon due to their high lignocellulose content and functional groups (-OH and -COOH) that enhance heavy metal adsorption. In addition, carbide waste, which is classified as hazardous and toxic waste, poses an ecological threat if disposed of incorrectly. This research focuses on the use of EFB waste and carbide to reduce Fe metal in Fe metal synthesis waste. Various adsorbent ratios (2:2.5, 2.5:2, and 2.5:2.5) and contact times ranging from 30 to 150 min were investigated, with an initial metal synthesis waste concentration of 40 mg/L. The findings showed that longer contact times resulted in the removal of large amounts of Fe(II) metal, with rates reaching 94.325%. The increase in the pH of the adsorbent mixture is caused by the alkaline nature of carbide waste in activated carbon. The Langmuir isotherm model provided the best fit to the data, with a correlation Equation of y = 0.3882x + 1.4823 (R2 = 0.995, RL = 0.556), which shows the effectiveness of the TKS-carbide waste mixture in reducing Fe(II) ions in the waste textile. The Freundlich isotherm model also showed a reasonable fit, with a correlation equation of y = -0.2804x – 0.0133 (R2 = 0.95). In summary, EFB-carbide waste adsorbent is a successful, consistent, and environmentally friendly solution for the reduction of heavy metals in textile waste.

2

Investigation of Hardfacing Deposits Obtained by Using Submerged Arc Welding Fluxes Containing High-Carbon Ferrochromium and Ferroboron

Kaptanoglu Mustafa, Eroglu Mehmet

Archives of Metallurgy and Materials

|

2023

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Vol. 68, iss. 3

895--905

EN

Hardfacing deposition processes were carried out using unalloyed S1-EL12 welding wire and submerged arc welding fluxes produced by agglomerated method containing 4-16 wt.% ferrochromium and 2 wt.% ferroboron to achieve wear-resistant of hardfacing deposits on common steel substrates via submerged arc welding. Typical parameters such as slag detachment behaviour, measurements of weld seam widths and heights, microstructural examinations, and hardness and wear tests of hardfacing deposits were characterized. End of the characterization processes, with the increase of chromium, carbon, and boron transition from welding fluxes to hardfacing deposits, the welding seam widths, and heights were determined to increase from 14.12 mm to 15.65 mm and 6.14 mm to 6.50 mm, respectively. Besides; carbide and boro-carbide ratios in the microstructures increased, the hardness values increased from 43 HRC to 61 HRC and the wear losses decreased from 5.79 to 4.43. (10-7 mm3 (Nm)-1).

3

Characteristics of the Evolution of Carbide Morphology in the Haynes® 230® Alloy as a Result of High Temperature Annealing

Polkowska Adelajda, Warmuzek Małgorzata, Dudziak Tomasz Paweł

Journal of Applied Materials Engineering

|

2020

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Vol. 60, iss. 4

109--119

EN

In this work, results of an investigation of the microstructure evolution in Haynes® 230® alloy are presented. The morphological and chemical compositions of the chosen microstructure’s constituents, such as the primary and secondary carbides, were analyzed based on tests in the temperature range 700–800 ◦C for 1000–3000 h. The prediction of phase evolution within the microstructure was proposed based on the analysis of mutual replacement of carbide-forming elements at the carbide/matrix interface. Based on the results, some complementary markers were considered to describe Haynes® 230® microstructure evolution. Qualitative markers, i.e., defined morphological features, were related to the shape and distribution of microstructure constituents. The study also used quantitative markers related to the local chemical compositions of carbide particles, determined as the ratio of the concentrations of carbide-forming elements Crc/Wc, Crc/CrM and Wc/WM. Microstructure maps created on the basis of these complementary markers for the successive annealing stages reflected the course of its morphological evolution.

4

Weld joint properties of nitrogen-alloyed austenitic stainless steel using multi-pass GMA welding

Kumar Naveen, Arora Navneet, Goel S. K.

Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering

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2020

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Vol. 20, no. 3

266--278

EN

The welding of nitrogen (0.29 wt%)-alloyed austenitic steel (grade 23-8-N) was performed with gas metal arc welding process. Solution treatment was performed at 950 °C and 1150 °C on base metal prior to weld. Base metal after second treatment has maximum ultimate tensile strength of 942 MPa and impact toughness 66 J. The microstructures of different zones of the weld joint were characterized using an optical microscope and field scanning electron microscope (FESEM). The microhardness, tensile and impact toughness tests of the weldments were conducted along with weld ferrite evaluation. ER2209 duplex filler metal used for welding has lower C and N content which changed the weld solidification mode. Weld has microstructure containing austenite + ferrite. Being a strong austenite former, nitrogen caused minimum ferrite near weld–HAZ interface while maximum ferrite content was observed at weld centre. Weld metal has minimum while base metal has maximum microhardness. UTS (892 MPa) and impact strength (96 J) of weld made on 1150 °C solution-treated base metal were maximum as compared to other weld joints.

5

Nanostrukturalne powłoki wielowarstwowe na ostrza narzędzi z węglików spiekanych i ze stali szybkotnących

Czechowski Kazimierz, Toboła Daniel, Wronska Iwona

Mechanik

|

2019

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R. 92, nr 3

174--178

PL

Przedstawiono zagadnienie nanoszenia powłok przeciwzużyciowych na ostrza narzędzi skrawających z węglików spiekanych i ze stali szybkotnących, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem nowych możliwości w tym zakresie. Na podstawie wybranych wyników prowadzonych w Instytucie Zaawansowanych Technologii Wytwarzania badań nad opracowaniem powłok wielowarstwowych nanostrukturalnych i nadstrukturalnych, nanoszonych metodą łukową PVD, pokazano, że wytworzone powłoki mogą się przyczyniać do wzrostu trwałości narzędzi.

EN

The state of the art of deposition of wear resistant coatings on cemented carbide and high speed steel cutting tools is presented with special regard to new possibilities in this field. On the ground of some results of research carried out at the Institute of Advanced Manufacturing Technology on the PVD arc multilayer nanostructured and superlattice coatings development was shown that the obtained coatings can contribute to the tool lives increase.

6

Crack resistance of tool steels corresponding with the chemical composition of their matrices

Pacyna J.

Archives of Materials Science and Engineering

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2017

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Vol. 86, nr 1

5--14

EN

Purpose: of the presented investigations was showing that the crack resistance of tool steels depends on their hardenability and phase transformations occurring in the quenched matrix at tempering. The chemical composition of austenite decides on the steel hardenability while phase transformations after tempering can be influenced (apart from the chemical composition) by the heating method. Design/methodology/approach: of investigations was based on the analysis of dilatograms and the achieved aim was to obtain the hard tool steel (app. 500 HV30) for hot works. Samples of a diameter of 10 mm (without a notch) made of this steel were not broken by the Charpy impact test of energy of 30 kGm. Findings: of these investigations are practical. Grain boundaries of prior austenite should be protected against secondary precipitates, which constitute natural nuclei of diffusive structures. It is also possible to control phase transformations at tempering. Research limitations/implications: constitute the availability of the adequate equipment for investigating the kinetics of phase transformations of undercooled austenite and the kinetics of phase transformations after tempering. Practical implications: for the industry are such that the proposed tool steels of a high crack resistance contain molybdenum and nickel. Thus, these steels are very expensive. Originality/value: of these investigations was confirmed in the industrial practice.

7

Structure and corrosion resistance of Co-Cr-Mo alloy used in Birmingham Hip Resurfacing system

Dobruchowska E., Paziewska M., Przybyl K., Reszka K.

Acta of Bioengineering and Biomechanics

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2017

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Vol. 19, no. 2

31--39

EN

The endoprostheses made of cobalt-chromium-molybdenum (Co-Cr-Mo) alloys belong to the group of the most popular metallic implants used for hip joints reconstruction. For such biomaterials, the primary goal is correct and long-term functioning in the aggressive environment of body fluids. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine both the morphology and the corrosion resistance of implants made of the cobalt alloy used in Birmingham Hip Resurfacing (BHR) system (Smith & Nephew). For comparative purposes, the electrochemical studies were done for the nitrided stainless steel – Orthinox. Methods: Observations of the microstructure of the investigated material were performed by means of the optical metallographic microscope and the scanning electron microscope. Furthermore, Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy was used to analyse the chemical composition of the endoprosthesis. Characterisation and evaluation of electrochemical corrosion resistance of the selected alloys were performed by potentiodynamic polarisation tests. Results: The structural studies confirmed that Co-Cr-Mo (BHR system) is characterised by a typical dendritic microstructure with carbide precipitates, mainly M23C6, within the interdendritic areas. Results of the polarisation measurements showed that the investigated cobalt alloy exhibits lower corrosion potential than Orthinox in the utilised environments (3% NaCl, simulated body fluid – Hank’s Body Fluid). Conclusions: However, the high passivation ability of the Co-Cr-Mo alloy, as well as its resistance to the initiation and propagation of localised corrosion processes, indicate that this material is significantly more appropriate for long-term implants.

8

Polimery węglowe z roztworów karbidu

Wirpsza Z.

Przemysł Chemiczny

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2016

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T. 95, nr 4

735--739

PL

Badano termodynamiczne przemiany węglika wapnia (karbidu) w roztworze chlorku cynku w 100–220°C. Jako produkt otrzymano najpierw polimer o wzorze –[C(ZnCl)=C(CaCl)]n–, a następnie polimer typu grafanu o płaskiej strukturze. Poniżej 220°C reakcja przebiegała w sposób trudny do kontrolowania. Udokumentowano budowę wyjściowego karbidu.

EN

CaC₂ was dissolved in molten ZnCl₂ and converted at 100–220°C to a polymer of formula – [C(ZnCl)=C(CaCl)]n – in the first stage and then to a polycyclic graphane of a flat structure. Above 220°C, the reaction course was hardly controlable. The real structure of CaC₂ was evidenced.

9

Dokładność obróbki obwiedniowej frezem ze stali szybkotnącej i z węglików spiekanych

Burek J., Buk J., Płodzień M., Misiura J.

Mechanik

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2016

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R. 89, nr 10

1468--1469

PL

Przedstawiono porównanie wybranych parametrów jakościowych kół zębatych po obwiedniowej obróbce frezami ze stali szybkotnącej PM-HSS i z węglików spiekanych HM-K.

EN

The article presents comparison between selected parameters of gears machined using high speed and carbide hob mill.

10

A study on the effect of different activating flux on A-TIG welding process of incoloy 800H

Sridhar S. P., Kumar S. A., Sathiya P.

Advances in Materials Science

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2016

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Vol. 16, nr 3(49)

26--37

EN

This study investigates the effect of different activating flux such as V2O5, TiO2, MoO3, Cr2O3, and Al2O3 on A-TIG welding process of Incoloy 800H. The influence of the flux on the depth of penetration and on mechanical and metallurgical characteristics of the weld were studied and compared with autogeneous TIG welds which were welded with the same process parameters and conditions. The use of TiO2 flux gave full depth of penetration and the use of V2O5, Cr2O3 flux gave increased penetration as compared to autogeneous TIG welds while the use of Al2O3 and MoO3 led to the detoriation of the effect.

11

Analiza wpływu warunków toczenia wzdłużnego na chropowatość powierzchni i postać wiórów stopu magnezu AM 60

Kowalski M., Karolczak P.

Mechanik

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2015

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R. 88, nr 8-9CD2

632--640

PL

Przedstawiono zagadnienia dotyczące obróbki ubytkowej stopów magnezu. Badaniom poddano odlewniczy stop magnezu AM 60. Zaprezentowano wpływ parametrów skrawania oraz rodzaju płytki skrawającej na chropowatość powierzchni i odmianę wióra powstającego po toczeniu wzdłużnym stopu AM 60. Opisano wpływ warunków obróbki na jego skrawalność.

EN

The article presents issues concerning magnesium alloys machining .Magnesium alloy AM 60 was studied. This article presents the influence of cutting parameters and the type of cutting insert on surface roughness and chip variation resulting after casting magnesium alloy AM 60 longitudinal turning. The influence of processing conditions on the machinability of the alloy AM 60 is described.

12

Zastosowanie walców z węglików spiekanych w procesach walcowania blach o wysokiej wytrzymałości

Świątoniowski A., Szostak J., Woźniak D.

Hutnik, Wiadomości Hutnicze

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2013

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Vol. 80, nr 9

661--664

PL

Stosując oprogramowanie typu MES, jakim jest Ansys 11, przedstawiono analizę stanu naprężeń i odkształceń w wykonanym z węglika spiekanego walcu roboczym sześciowalcowej walcarki do walcowania ultratwardych blach cienkich na zimno. Stwierdzono iż zasadniczym problemem w utrzymaniu założonego przedziału tolerancji grubości pasma po odkształceniu – równego ±0,5% nominalnego wymiaru grubości h1 są odkształcenia kontaktowe na powierzchni styku walców roboczych i oporowych. Odkształcenia te pozostają też znaczące w strefie styku walca roboczego z materiałem.

EN

Work contains analysis of condition of strain and stress in working roller made of sintered carbides in six roller mill for cold rolling ultrahard metal, based on FEM Ansys 11software pack. It has been certified that basic problem in keeping the right range of tolerance of strip thickness after deformation equal ± 0.5% of nominal dimension h1 are contact deformation on contact surface of working and resistant roller. Anyhow these deformations are significant between the working roller surface and material.

13

Superconductivity at 9.5 K in the Ti2GeC compound

Bortolozo A. D., Sant'Anna O. H., Dos Santos C. A. M., Machado A. J. S.

Materials Science Poland

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2012

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Vol. 30, No. 2

92--97

EN

We report on the investigation of the Ti2GeC properties by X-ray diffraction, magnetic and electrical resistivity measurements. Polycrystalline samples of Ti2GeC with nominal compositions were prepared by solid state reaction. X-ray powder patterns suggest that all peaks can be indexed with the hexagonal phase of Cr2AlC prototype. The temperature dependence of both electrical resistivity and magnetization indicate a bulk type-II superconductivity at 9.5 K. Magnetoresistive data suggest an upper critical field of Bc2 -- 8.1 T and coherence length - 61 A° . Furthermore, the results highlight the highest critical temperature reported up to now for an H-phase.

14

Failure of gas turbine cone burner by carburization

Ardy H., Putra S., Hardianto T.

Journal of KONES

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2012

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Vol. 19, No. 2

9-16

EN

Gas turbine for a power plant has 72 pieces of cone burner in its combustion chamber. High-speed diesel oil (HSD) is use as fuel to produce 130 MW of power at 3,000 rpm. The maximum temperature at the turbine inlet is estimated about 1087 centigrade and at the outlet is between 400-540oC. Sixty percent of the cone burner failed repetitively at one side of the tip-end after 6,000 hours of service. The refurbished cone burner has to be replaced by a new one after 18,000 of service-hours. The cone burner material is cast Hastelloy-X (nickel based alloys). Metallurgical analyses by microstructural observation using optical and scanning electron microscopes, and energy dispersive spectroscope have been performed to observe the change in burner microstructure. Thermodynamics analysis has been performed to obtain temperature distribution around the failed section. Two failed cone burners have been examined; cone burner that has not been repaired, and that has been repaired twice. Thermodynamics analysis result shown that the temperature around the failed section is between 897 to 1087 centigrade. Microstructure of the good part, far from the failed section, consists of cast structure of austenite matrix and fine carbide particles. Severe carbide precipitation and growth was observed on the failed section even the nominal carbon content in material is only 0.10 percent (max.). Severe carbide precipitation occurred because of carbon ingress from the environment (carburization) which combines with carbide forming elements in material (chromium, molybdenum, and tungsten). As a result, the corrosion and oxidation resistance of material decreased significantly after long time exposure at high temperature that led to oxidation, thinning, and failure of the cone burner tip. Failure only localized on one side of the tip-edge, therefore refurbishment by welding and coating can be performed to extend the life cycle of cone burner. The current examination results shows that the replacement cycle is not only limited to 18,000 hours but can also be extended to 48,000 hours.

15

Mechanisms of carriers transport in Ni/n-SiC, Ti/n-SiC ohmic contacts

Kisiel R., Guziewicz M., Golaszewska K., Sochacki M., Paszkowicz W.

Materials Science Poland

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2011

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Vol. 29, No. 3

233--240

EN

A mechanism of carriers transport through metal-semiconductor interface created by nickel or titanium-based ohmic contacts on Si-face n-type 4H-SiC is presented herein. The mechanism was observed within the temperature range of 20 °C - 300 °C which are typical for devices operating at high current density and at poor cooling conditions. It was found that carriers transport depends strongly on concentration of dopants in the epitaxial layer. The carriers transport has thermionic emission nature for low dopant concentration of 51016 cm-3. The thermionic emission was identified for moderate dopant concentration of 5-1017 cm-3 at temperatures higher than 200 °C. Below 200 °C, the field emission dominates (for the same doping level of 5-1017 cm-3). High dopant concentration of 5-1018 cm-3 leads to almost pure field emission transport within the whole investigated temperature range.

16

The Cr3C2 thermal spray coating on Al-Si substrate

Richert M., Książek M., Leszczyńska-Madej B., Nejman I., Grzelka R., Pałka P.

Journal of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering

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2010

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Vol. 38, nr 1

95-102

EN

Purpose: The objective of this work was to present the changes between the plasma sprayed and high velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) wear Cr3C2 resistant coats. The differences in microstructure and microhardness of coatings were investigated. The characterization of fully melted, un- melted and partly melted areas was performed. Design/methodology/approach: The investigated coats contained very differentiate areas, especially plasma sprayed layers. Systematic investigations of microstructure by using optical, electron scanning microscopy and transmission electron microscopy selected fully melted, un- melted or partly melted areas and their characteristic features were performed. Microhardness of coats was measured and compared with the similar literature results. Findings: Microstructure of plasma sprayed coats was finding as consisting from elongating splats, additionally contained un-melted previous particle of powder and some voids and oxides. Contrary to this the HFOV coatingss were more uniform containing almost equiaxial grains. The microhardness of HFOV coatings was almost two times higher than plasma sprayed ones. Practical implications: The performed investigations provide information, which could be useful in the industrial practice about the essential features of wear resistant plasma sprayed coatings. Originality/value: It was assumed that HVOF coatings have more uniform microstructure, higher microhardness, which could suggests better resistance before the wear and grindability.

17

Effect of deep cryogenic treatment on substructure of HS6-5-2 high speed steel

Jeleńkowski J., Ciski A., Babul T.

Journal of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering

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2010

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Vol. 43, nr 1

80-87

EN

Purpose: The purpose of this study was using of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) in order to reveal the changes in substructure of speed steel made with deep cryogenic treatment (DCT), in comparison with substructure formed by conventional heat treatment for secondary hardness. Design/methodology/approach: The HS6-5-2 high speed steel was heat treated in a conventional mode for secondary hardness or was processed in a mode with use of DCT, with and without next tempering. Transmission electron microscopy and scanning electron microscopy observations were carried out. Studies of thermal stability in range of temperatures from -196 °C to 400 °C were performed using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Findings: Observations made with aid of SEM-TEM microscope revealed the presence of high density of globular clusters situated at dislocations, and precipitations of the fine carbide plates, located in twinned crystals of martensite. Thermal analysis (DSC) showed an occurrence of higher exothermic effects in specimens treated with use of DCT, than in specimens heat treated conventionally. In steel samples after quenching and DCT the additional exothermic effect was observed. Electron diffraction in TEM studies of these specimens allowed to observe reflections of which indexing exhibited that the precipitated carbide phase has crystallographic structure of B1 type. Research limitations/implications: Extremely high dispersion of carbide phases and a high state of stress that accompanies the stage of precipitation, make difficult the identification of the lattice structure of precipitations, its crystallographic relationships and the degree of coherence with the matrix. Identification of the type of carbides (ĺ, ç, B1, and others) and their coherence with matrix become time-consuming. This important issue requires detailed studies using high-resolution microscopes. Conditions of the early stage of the precipitation process affect the stability of induced strengthening and service-life of tools. Practical implications: Research of HS6-5-2 high speed steel allowed concluding that DCT, besides refinement of martensite grain size, causes an increase of quantity of sites for nucleation of clusters, in which during tempering the B1 carbides are formed. These fine, coherent with matrix and stable carbides are found to be responsible for enhancement of toughness and wear resistance of HSS tools. Originality/value: The issue of DCT is a niche topic in Poland, there are no detailed studies on the changes taking place during this process.

18

Formowanie się napoin na bazie niklu umacnianych węglikami metali przejściowych

Bober M., Senkara J.

Biuletyn Instytutu Spawalnictwa w Gliwicach

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2010

|

R. 54, nr 5

103-107

PL

Przedmiotem badań było otrzymywanie metodą plazmową napoin na osnowie stopu NiSi2B z dodatkami węglików metali IVB i VIB grupy układu okresowego na podłożu ze stali niskostopowej S355J0. Analiza oddziaływań międzyfazowych oraz struktury napoin wykazała, iż odmienny charakter oddziaływania węglików metali obu grup z ciekłym stopem niklu wpływa na rozmieszczenie i udział cząstek fazy umacniającej w matrycy. Wykazano, iż rozmieszczenie twardych cząstek, zbliżone do równomiernego, ma miejsce w powłokach umacnianych węglikami metali grupy VIB układu okresowego pierwiastków. Objętościowy udział węglików tytanu i cyrkonu zwiększa się wraz ze wzrostem natężenia prądu, natomiast w powłokach zawierających węgliki chromu, molibdenu i wolframu ich udział maleje, co związane jest z odmiennym mechanizmem oddziaływania z ciekłą osnową.

EN

The object of the investigations was to obtain NiSi2B based weld overlays with additions of carbides of the metals from IVB and VIB group of the Mendeleev's table over the S355JO low alloy steel base by plasma (PPTAW) method. The analysis of interfacial reactions and overlays structure has shown that the different character of reaction of both group metal carbides with liquid nickel alloy influences the lay-out and concentration of strengthening phase particles in the base. It has been shown also that the almost uniform lay-out of hard particles occurs in overlays strengthened with carbides of metals from VIB group of the periodic system. The volume fraction of TiC and ZrC grows larger with the increase in welding current, whereas in overlays strengthened with chromium, molybdenum and tungsten carbides the fraction of strengthening phase grows smaller what is connected with the different mechanism of reaction with liquid matrix.

19

Bainite obtaining in cast iron with carbides castings

Pietrowski S., Gumienny G.

Archives of Foundry Engineering

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2010

|

Vol. 10, iss. 1

109-114

EN

In these paper the possibility of upper and lower bainite obtaining in cast iron with carbides castings are presented. Conditions, when in cast iron with carbides castings during continuous free air cooling austenite transformation to upper bainite or its mixture with lower bainte proceeds, have been given. A mechanism of this transformation has been given, Si, Ni, Mn and Mo distribution in the eutectic cell has been tested and hardness of tested castings has been determined.

20

Wear of the tools of different materials and geometries when milling MDF

Kowaluk G., Szymański W., Pałubicki B., Beer P.

Drewno : prace naukowe, doniesienia, komunikaty

|

2007

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vol. 50, nr 178

87-93

EN

The aim of this work was an investigation of the influence of a tool's material and tool's geometry (blade angle) on wear of the tool when milling medium density fiberboards. As material for the tool the high-speed steel and carbide were used. Four types of blades of angles of 25, 40, 45 and 55 degrees were produced from each of these materials. The investigation of MDF milling shows that commercial tools made of high-speed steel and carbide are not geometrically optimized in terms of materials subjected to cutting and their application.

PL

Dotychczasowe badania w zakresie wpływu właściwości materiałów narzędziowych i geometrii narzędzi skrawających na ich zużycie były prowadzone głównie w odniesieniu do drewna i płyt wiórowych. Odczuwalny jest brak tego typu badań dla płyt MDF. Celem niniejszych badań było ustalenie wpływu materiałów narzędziowych oraz geometrii ostrza (kąta ostrza) na zużycie ostrzy podczas skrawania płyt MDF. Jako materiału narzędziowego użyto stali szybkotnącej oraz węglika spiekanego. Z obu tych materiałów wykonano po 4 rodzaje ostrzy, różniących się między sobą kątem ostrza. Zastosowano następujące kąty ostrza: 25, 40, 45 oraz 55 stopni. Badania obróbki frezowaniem płyty MDF wykazały, że komercyjne narzędzia zarówno ze stali szybkotnącej, jak również z węglika spiekanego, nie są produkowane ze optymalizowaną geometrią ostrzy. Optymalizacja ta powinna uwzględniać materiał narzędzia oraz jego aplikację.