Związki chromu(VI) – w przeliczeniu na Cr(VI) : dokumentacja proponowanych dopuszczalnych wielkości narażenia zawodowego

• Autorzy: Broda Anna , Konieczko Katarzyna , Skowroń Jolanta

Identyfikatory

DOI

10.54215/PiMOSP/2.109.2021

Warianty tytułu

EN

Chromium (VI) compounds – as Cr(VI) : documentation of proposed values of occupational exposure limits (OELs)

• Języki publikacji: PL

Abstrakty

PL

Związki chromu(VI) są ciałami stałymi o budowie krystalicznej, o zróżnicowanej rozpuszczalności w wodzie. Związki Cr(VI) są stosowane w obróbce powierzchni metalowych w celu zabezpieczenia przed korozją lub w celach dekoracyjnych (chromowanie, anodowanie), jako dodatek do stali nierdzewnej chromowej, w syntezie chemicznej jako silny środek utleniający i jako katalizator, do produkcji niektórych pigmentów, inhibitorów korozji, środków do ochrony drewna. Powstają również podczas spawania i cięcia plazmowego. Pracownicy mogą być narażeni na związki Cr(VI) w środowisku pracy drogą inhalacyjną, pokarmową i przez skórę. Na terenach uprzemysłowionych możliwe jest narażenie pozazawodowe, np. przez wodę do picia, kontakt z glebą lub innymi mediami zanieczyszczonymi tymi związkami. W Polsce w latach 2005-2018 na podstawie informacji przesłanych do Centralnego Rejestru Danych o Narażeniu na Substancje, Preparaty, Czynniki lub Procesy Technologiczne o Działaniu Rakotwórczym lub Mutagennym prowadzonego przez IMP w Łodzi w środowisku zawodowym najbardziej rozpowszechniony był dichromian(VI) potasu (zgłaszało go ponad 500 zakładów pracy, a liczba narażonych osób przekraczała 5 tys.). Ponad 1 tys. narażonych osób zgłaszano również w przypadku tlenku chromu(VI), chromianu(VI) potasu oraz innych związków chromu(VI). Zdecydowaną większość zgłoszonych do rejestru stanowisk pracy, na których występowały związki Cr(VI), stanowiły stanowiska laboratoryjne (75%), ponad 10% stanowiska pracy związane z galwanizacją lub trawieniem powierzchni, a około 4% stanowiska spawaczy. W 2018 r. rozporządzeniem MRPiPS wprowadzono dla wszystkich związków Cr(VI) wartość NDS wynoszącą 0,01 mg/m³. W 2019 r. zgodnie z danymi GIS na stężenia >0,1 NDS ÷ 0,5 NDS było narażonych 640 pracowników, >0,5 NDS ÷ NDS – 146 pracowników, a powyżej wartości NDS – 48 pracowników. Przewlekłe narażenie zawodowe na związki Cr(VI) może powodować skutki związane ze żrącym i drażniącym działaniem tych substancji (zmiany skórne, objawy ze strony dróg oddechowych, zaburzenia funkcji nerek) oraz wystąpienie raka płuca i zatok przynosowych. Okres latencji wystąpienia raka płuca u pracowników narażonych zawodowo na związki Cr(VI) wynosi około 20 lat. U ludzi dowody działania związków Cr(VI) na rozrodczość są niejednoznaczne, chociaż są badania wskazujące na ryzyko zmniejszenia jakości nasienia, które odnotowano w grupie spawaczy. Przy ustalaniu wartości NDS za skutek krytyczny działania związków Cr(VI) przyjęto działanie rakotwórcze na płuca. Dla związków Cr(VI) przyjęto wartość NDS na poziomie 0,005 mg Cr(VI)/m³ bez ustalenia wartości chwilowej NDSCh. Zaproponowana wartość NDS 0,005 mg Cr(VI)/m³ zabezpieczy pracowników również przed działaniem drażniącym związków Cr(VI) obecnych w powietrzu środowiska pracy. Przyjęto następujące oznakowanie związków Cr(VI): Carc.*, Muta.*, Ft (Repr.)*, C(r-r)*, I* oraz A*, których kategorię należy ustalić zgodnie z tabelą 3. załącznika VI do rozporządzenia Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady WE nr 1272/2008 z dnia 16 grudnia 2008 r. (Dz. Urz. WE L 353, 1-1355 z późn. zm.).

EN

Chromium (VI) compounds are solids with a crystalline structure of varying solubility in water. Chromium (VI) compounds are used in the treatment of metal surfaces to protect against corrosion or for decorative purposes (chrome plating, anodizing), as an additive to chrome stainless steel, in chemical synthesis as a strong oxidizing agent and as a catalyst, for the production of certain pigments, inhibitors corrosion, wood preservatives. They are also formed during welding and plasma cutting. Workers can be exposed to Cr(VI) compounds in the working environment by inhalation, oral and dermal route. In industrialized areas, non-occupational exposure, e.g., through drinking water, contact with soil or other media contaminated with these compounds is possible. In Poland, in 2005-2018, based on information sent to the Central Registry conducted by the Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine in Łódź, the most common was potassium dichromate (VI) (it was reported by over 500 workplaces, and the number of exposed people exceeded 5,000). Over one thousand exposed persons have been reported for chromium (VI) oxide, potassium chromate (VI) and other chromium (VI) compounds. The vast majority of workplaces with chromium (VI) compounds reported to the register were laboratory stands (75%), over 10% of workplaces related to electroplating or surface etching, and about 4% were welders. In 2018, the regulation of ministry introduced a TLV (MAC) value of 0.01 mg/mᶾ for all chromium(VI) compounds. In 2019, according to Sanitary Inspection data, 640 workers were exposed to concentrations > 0.1 MAC ÷ 0.5 MAC, > 0.5 MAC ÷ MAC – 146 workers, and above the MAC value – 48 workers. Chronic occupational exposure to chromium (VI) compounds may cause effects related to the corrosive and irritating action of these substances (skin lesions, respiratory symptoms, renal dysfunction) and the occurrence of lung cancer and paranasal sinuses. The latency period for lung cancer in workers who are occupationally exposed to Cr(VI) compounds is approximately 20 years. In humans, evidence of the effects of chromium (VI) compounds on reproduction is inconclusive, although there are studies showing a risk of reduced semen quality, which has been reported in the group of welders. Lung carcinogenicity was assumed as a critical effect of Cr(VI) compounds when establishing the MAC value. For chromium (VI) compounds, the MAC value was assumed at the level of 0.005 mg Cr(VI)/m³ without establishing the short-term (STEL, NDSCh) value. The proposed MACV value of 0.005 mg Cr(VI)/m³ will also protect employees against the irritating effects of chromium(VI) compounds present in workplace air. The following labeling of chromium (VI) compounds has been adopted: Carc.*, Muta.*, Ft (Repr.)*, C (rr)*, I* and A*, the category of which should be determined in accordance with table 3 of Annex VI to the Regulation of the European Parliament and EC Council No. 1272/2008 of December 16, 2008 (OJEU L 353, 1-1355 as amended).

Słowa kluczowe

PL

rakotwórczość; ocena ryzyka; NDS; nauki o zdrowiu; inżynieria środowiska

EN

carcinogenicity; risk assessment; TLV; MAC; OEL; health sciences; environmental engineering

• Wydawca: Centralny Instytut Ochrony Pracy - Państwowy Instytut Badawczy
• Czasopismo: Podstawy i Metody Oceny Środowiska Pracy
• Rocznik: 2021
• Tom: Nr 3 (109)
• Strony: 29--145
• Opis fizyczny: Bibliogr. 224 poz., rys., tab.

Twórcy

autor

Broda Anna

• Instytut Medycyny Pracy im. prof. dr med. Jerzego Nofera 91-348 Łódź, ul. św. Teresy od Dzieciątka Jezus 8 POLAND

autor

Konieczko Katarzyna

• Instytut Medycyny Pracy im. prof. dr med. Jerzego Nofera 91-348 Łódź, ul. św. Teresy od Dzieciątka Jezus 8 POLAND

• https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7878-5248

autor

Skowroń Jolanta

• Centralny Instytut Ochrony Pracy – Państwowy Instytut Badawczy Central Institute for Labour Protection – National Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland

• https://orcid.org//0000-0003-4550-5339

Bibliografia

• 1. ACGIH (2004). Chromium(VI), water-soluble fume. [W:] Documentation of the TLVs and BEIs with other worldwide occupational exposure values. Cincinnati, USA.
• 2. ACGIH (2018). Chromium and inorganic compounds. [W:] documentation of the TLVs and BEIs with other worldwide occupational exposure values. Cincinnati, USA.
• 3. ACGIH (2021). TLVs and BEIs threshold limit values for chemical substances and physical agents and biological exposure indices. Cincinnati, USA.
• 4. Acharya S., Mehta K., Krishnan S., Rao C.V. (2001). A subtoxic interactive toxicity study of ethanol and chromium in male Wistar rats. Alcohol 23(2), 99–108.
• 5. Adachi S., Yoshimura H., Miyayama R., Katayama H., Takemoto K., Kawai H. (1981). Effects of chromium compounds on the respiratory system. Part 1. An experimental study of inhalation of chromic acid mist in electroplating. Jpn. J. Ind. Health 23, 294–299.
• 6. Adachi S., Yoshimura H., Katayama H., Takemoto K. (1986). Effects of chromium compounds on the respiratory system. Part 4. Long term inhalation of chromic acid mist in electroplating to ICR female mice. Jpn. J. Ind. Health 28, 283–287.
• 7. Adachi S. (1987). Effect of chromium compounds on the respiratory system. Part 5. Long term inhalation of chromic acid mist in electroplating by C57BL female mice and recapitulation on our experimental studies. Jpn. J. Ind. Health 29, 17–33.
• 8. AGS, Ausschuss für Gefahrstoffe (2014). Begründung zu expositions-risiko-beziehung für chrom(VI)-verbindungen in TRGS 910. Stand: November 2013 [http://www.baua.de/de/ Themen-von-A-Z/Gefahrstoffe/TRGS/Begruendungen-910. html].
• 9. Angerer J., Amin W., Heinrich-Ramm R., Szadkowski D., Lehnert G. (1987). Occupational chronic exposure to metals. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 59(5), 503–512.
• 10. ATSDR (2000). Toxicology profile for chromium. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseases Registry.
• 11. ATSDR (2012). Toxicological profile for chromium. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
• 12. Axelsson G., Rylander R., Schmidt A. (1980). Mortality and incidence of tumours among ferrochromium workers. Br. J. Ind. Med. 37, 121–127.
• 13. Baetjer A.M. (1950). Pulmonary carcinoma in chromate workers. II. Incidence and basis of hospital records. Int. Arch. Ind. Hyg. Occup. Med. 2(5), 505–516.
• 14. Baggett J.M. (1986). Chromium and the potentiative interaction with some other nephrotoxins. [W:] Proceedings of chromium symposium 1986. An update. Pittsburgh, PA, Industrial Health Foundation, 59–78.
• 15. Banu S.K., Samuel J.B., Arosh J.A., Burghardt R.C., Aruldhas M.M. (2008). Lactational exposure to hexavalent chromium delays puberty by impairing ovarian development, steroidogenesis and pituitary hormone synthesis in developing Wistar rats. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 232(2), 180–189.
• 16. Baranowska-Dutkiewicz B. (1987). Absorption of hexavalent chromium by skin in man. Arch. Toxicol. 47, 47–50. Becker N., Claude J., Frentzel-Beyme R. (1985). Cancer risk of arc welders exposed to fumes containing chromium and nickel. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 11, 75–82.
• 17. Becker N. (1999). Cancer mortality among arc welders exposed to fumes containing chromium and nickel. Results of a third follow-up: 1989-1995. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 41(4), 294–303.
• 18. Beveridge R., Pintos J., Parent M.E., Asselin J., Siemiatycki J. (2010). Lung cancer risk associated with occupational exposure to nickel, chromium VI, and cadmium in two population-based case-control studies in Montreal. Am. J. Ind. Med. 53(5), 476–485.
• 19. Bielański A. (1976). Chemia ogólna i nieorganiczna [General and inorganic chemistry]. Warszawa, PWN, wyd. 4., 564–577.
• 20. Birk T., Mund K. A., Dell L.D., Luippold R.S., Miksche L., Steinmann-Steiner-Haldenstaett W., Mund D.J. (2006). Lung cancer mortality in the German chromate industry, 1958 to 1998. J. Occup. Environ Med. 48(4), 426–433.
• 21. Bolt H.M., Lewalter J. (2012). Alkali chromates (Cr(VI). [W:] The MAK Collection for Occupational Health and Safety. BAT Value Documentations, vol. 1. Wiley-VHC [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/3527600418. bb0ek1e0001/full].
• 22. Bonde J.P.E., Ernst E. (1992). Sex hormones and semen quality in welders exposed to hexavalent chromium. Human. Exp. Toxicol. 11, 259–263.
• 23. Braver E.R., Infante P., Chu K. (1985). An analysis of lung cancer risk from exposure to hexavalent chromium. Teratog. Carcinog. Mutagen. 5, 365–378.
• 24. Bright P., Burge P.S., O’Hickey S.P., Gannon P.F.G., Robertson A.S., Boran A. (1997). Occupational asthma due to chrome and nickel electroplating. Thorax 52(1), 28–32 [http://europepmc. org/backend/ptpmcrender.fcgi?accid=PMC1758409&blobtype=pdf ].
• 25. Bronzetti G.L., Galli A. (1989). Influence of NTA on the chromium genotoxicity. Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 23, 101–104.
• 26. Brune D., Nordberg G., Wester P.O. (1980). Distribution of 23 elements in the kidney, liver, and lungs of workers from a smeltery and refinery in north Sweden exposed to a number of elements and of a control group. Sci. Total. Environ. 16, 13–35.
• 27. Centralny Rejestr Danych o Narażeniu na Substancje, Mieszaniny, Czynniki i Procesy Technologiczne o Działaniu Rakotwórczym lub Mutagennym [Central Register of Cancerogenic or Mutagenic Agents] (2020). Łódź, Instytut Medycyny Pracy (dane niepublikowane/unpublished data).
• 28. Chan-Yeung M. (1995). Occupational asthma. Environ. Health Perspect. 103(suppl. 6), 249–252.
• 29. ChemIDPlus (2020). Advanced. Baza danych [https://chem. nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/].
• 30. ChemNet (2020). Baza danych [http://www.chemnet.com/].
• 31. Chen C.J., Shih T.S., Chang H.Y., Yu H.S., Wu J.D., Sheu S.C., Wu C.E., Chou T.C. (2008). The total body burden of chromium associated with skin disease and smoking among cement workers. Sci. Tot. Environ. 391(1), 76–81.
• 32. Chowdhury A.R., Mitra C. (1995). Spermatogenic and steroidogenic impairment after chromium treatment in rats. Indian. J. Exp. Biol. 33, 480–484.
• 33. Christenson W.R., Davis M.E., Berndt W.O. (1989). The effect of combined treatment with potassium dichromate and maleic acid on renal function in the rat. Toxicol. Lett. 49, 21–27.
• 34. Clementino M., Shi X., Zhang Z. (2018). Oxidative stress and metabolic reprogramming in Cr(VI) carcinogenesis. Curr. Opin. Toxicol. 8, 20–27.
• 35. Cohen M.D., Sisco M., Baker K. i in. (2003). Impact of coexposure to ozone on the carcinogenic potential of inhaled chromium. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 66(1), 39–55.
• 36. Cohen S.R., Davis D.M., Kramkowski R.S. (1974). Clinical manifestations of chromic acid toxicity: nasal lesions in electroplate workers. Cutis 13, 558.
• 37. Cohen S.R., Kramkowski R.S. (1973). Health hazard evaluation determination, Report 72-118-l04. Cincinnati, OH, U.S. DHEW; NIOSH [cyt. za: EPA 1998].
• 38. Cole P., Rodu B. (2005). Epidemiologic studies of chrome and cancer mortality: a series of meta-analyses. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 43, 225–231.
• 39. Cross H.J., Faux S.P., Sadhra S., Sorahan T., Levy L.S., Aw T.C., Braithwaite R., McRoy C., Hamilton L., Calvert I. (1997). Criteria document for hexavalent chromium. Paris, France, International Chromium Development Association [cyt. za: NIOSH 2013].
• 40. Crump K.S. (1995). Evaluation of epidemiological data and risk assessment for hexavalent chromium. Washington DC. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Contract J-9-F-1-0066 [cyt. za: SCOEL 2004].
• 41. Crump C., Crump K., Hack E., Luippold R., Mundt K., Liebig E., Panko J., Paustenbach D., Proctor D. (2003). Dose-response and risk-assessment of airborne hexavalent chromium and lung cancer mortality. Risk Anal. 23(6), 1147–1163.
• 42. CSTEE (2002). Opinion on risks to health from chromium VI in cement. Opinion expressed at the 32th CSTEE plenary meeting, Brussels, 27 June 2002. European Commision, DG Health and Consumer protection, Scientific Committee on Toxicity, Ecotoxicity and the Environment, C2/AST/csteeop/ ChromiumVI 27062002/D(02).
• 43. Dalager N.A., Mason T.J., Fraumeni J.F. Jr., Hoover R., Payne W.W. (1980). Cancer mortality among workers exposed to zinc chromate paints. J. Occup. Med. 22(1), 25–29.
• 44. Davidson T., Kluz T., Burns F. Rossman T., Zhang Q., Uddin A., Nadas A., Costa M. (2004). Exposure to chromium (VI) in the drinking water increases susceptibility to UV-induced skin tumors in hairless mice. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 196, 431–437.
• 45. Davies J.M. (1979). Lung cancer mortality of workers in chromate pigment manufacture: an epidemiological survey. J. Oil Colour Chem. Assoc. 62, 157–163.
• 46. Davies J.M. (1984a). Lung cancer mortality among workers making lead chromate and zinc chromate pigments at three English factories. Br. J. Ind. Med. 41, 158–169.
• 47. Davies J.M. (1984b). Long term mortality study of pigment workers who suffered lead poisoning. Br. J. Ind. Med. 41, 170–178.
• 48. DECOS, Dutch Expert Committee on Occupational Safety (2016). Cr VI compounds. Health-based calculated cancer risk values. The Hague: Health Council of the Netherlands.
• 49. Deng Y., Wang M., Tian T., Lin S., Xu P., Zhou L., Dai C., Hao Q., Wu Y., Zhai Z., Zhu Y., Zhuang G., Dai Z. (2019). The effect of hexavalent chromium on the incidence and mortality of human cancers: a meta-analysis based on published epidemiological cohort studies. Front. Oncol. 9, 24; doi: 10.3389/ fonc.2019.00024.
• 50. DFG (2019). List of MAK and BAT values. Report 55. Wiley-VCH [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ pdf/10.1002/9783527826889].
• 51. Donaldson R.M., Barreras R.F. (1966). Intestinal absorption of trace quantities of chromium. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 68, 484–493.
• 52. Donato F., Garzaro G., Pira E., Boffetta P. (2016). Mortality and cancer morbidity among cement production workers: a meta-analysis. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 89, 1155–1168.
• 53. Dyrektywa 2004/37/WE Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady z dnia 29 kwietnia 2004 r. w sprawie ochrony pracowników przed zagrożeniem dotyczącym narażenia na działanie czynników rakotwórczych lub mutagenów podczas pracy (szósta dyrektywa szczegółowa w rozumieniu art. 16 ust. 1 dyrektywy Rady 89/391/EWG. Dz. Urz. L 05/t. 5, s. 35-54, z późn. zm.) [Directive 2004/37/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to carcinogens or mutagens at work (Sixth individual Directive within the meaning of Article 16(1) of Council Directive 89/391/EEC)].
• 54. Dyrektywa Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady (UE) 2017/2398 z dnia 12 grudnia 2017 r. zmieniająca dyrektywę 2004/37/WE w sprawie ochrony pracowników przed zagrożeniem dotyczącym narażenia na działanie czynników rakotwórczych lub mutagenów podczas pracy. Dz. Urz. L 345 z dn. 27.12.2017 r., s. 87–95 [Directive (EU) 2017/2398 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2017 amending Directive 2004/37/EC on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to carcinogens or mutagens at work].
• 55. Dyrektywa Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady (UE) 2019/130 z dnia 16 stycznia 2019 r. zmieniająca dyrektywę 2004/37/WE w sprawie ochrony pracowników przed zagrożeniem dotyczącym narażenia na działanie czynników rakotwórczych lub mutagenów podczas pracy. Dz. Urz. L 30 z dn. 31.01.2019 r., s. 112–120 [Directive (EU) 2019/130 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 January 2019 amending Directive 2004/37/EC on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to carcinogens or mutagens at work].
• 56. ECHA, European Chemicals Agency (2013). Final report for hexavalent chromium. Reference: ECHA/2011/01 – SR11, services to support the assessment of remaining cancer risks related to the use of chromium- and arsenic-containing substances in Applications for Authorisation [http://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/13641/carcinogenicity_dose_response_cr_vi_report_en.pdf].
• 57. Elbetieha A., Al-Hamood M.H. (1997). Long-term exposure of male and female mice to trivalent and hexavalent chromium compounds: effect on fertility. Toxicology 116, 39–47.
• 58. Ellis E.N., Brouhard B.H., Lynch R.E., Dawson E.B., Tisdell R., Nichols M.M., Ramirez F. (1982). Effects of hemodialysis and dimercaprol in acute dichromate poisoning. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 19(3), 249–258.
• 59. EPA, Environmental Protection Agency (1984). Health assessment document for chromium. Research Triangle Park, NC. Environmental Assessment and Criteria Office, U.S. EPA600883014F.
• 60. EPA, Environmental Protection Agency (1998). Toxicological Review of Hexavalent Chromium (CAS No. 18540-29-9). In Support of Summary Information on the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Washington DC.
• 61. EC, European Commission (2019). Study to collect updated information for a limited number of chemical agents with a view to analyse the health, socio-economic and environmental impacts in connection with possible amendments of Directive 2004/37/EC on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to carcinogens or mutagens at work. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, PDF ISBN 978-92-76-07987-3; doi:10.2767/456711.
• 62. EU RAR, European Union Risk Assessment Report (2005). Chromium trioxide, sodium chromate, sodium dichromate, ammonium dichromate and potassium dichromate. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2005, 3rd Priority List, vol. 53 [https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/3be377f2-cb05-455f-b620-af3cbe2d570b].
• 63. Franchini I., Magnani F., Mutti A. (1983). Mortality experience among chromeplating workers. Scand. J. Work Environ Health 9, 247–252.
• 64. Fregert S., Gruvberger B., Heijer A. (1970). Chromium dermatitis from galvanized sheets. Berufdermatosen 18, 254–260.
• 65. Frentzel-Beyme R. (1983). Lung cancer mortality of workers employed in chromate pigment factories. J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol. 105, 183–188.
• 66. Fritz K.W., Bohm P., Buntru G., Lowen C.H. (1960). Acute occupational poisoning with dichromates and its treatment. Klinische Wochenschrift 17, 856–61 [cyt. za: SCOEL 2004].
• 67. Gad S.C., Powers W.J., Dunn B.J. i in. (1986). Acute toxicity of four chromium salts. [W:] Proceedings of Chromium Symposium 1986: an update. [Red.] D. Serrone. Industrial Health Foundation, PA 43–58 [cyt. za: SCOEL 2004].
• 68. Gatto N.M., Kelsh M.A., Mai D.H., Suh M., Proctor D.M. (2010). Occupational exposure to hexavalent chromium and cancers of the gastrointestinal tract: a meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol. 34(4), 388–399.
• 69. Gava C., Costa R., Zordan M., Vernier P., Bianchi V., Lewis A.G. (1989). Induction of gene mutations in Salmonella and Drosophila by soluble Cr(VI) compounds: synergistic effects of nitrilotriacetic acid. Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 22, 27–38.
• 70. GESTIS (2020a). International limit values for chemical agents [https://www.dguv.de/ifa/gestis/gestis-internationale-grenzwerte-fuer-chemische-substanzen-limit-values-for-chemical-agents/index-2.jsp].
• 71. GESTIS (2020b). Substance database [https://www.dguv.de/ ifa/gestis/gestis-stoffdatenbank/index-2.jsp].
• 72. Gibb H.J., Chen C.W., Hiremath C.B. (1986). Carcinogen risk assessment of chromium compounds. [W:] Proceedings of chromium symposium. [Red.] D. Serrone. Pittsburgh, PA, Industrial Health Foundation, 248–309.
• 73. Gibb H.J., Lees P.S.J., Pinsky P.F., Rooney B.C. (2000a). Clinical findings of irritation among chromium chemical production workers. Am. J. Ind. Med. 38, 127–130.
• 74. Gibb H.J., Lees P.S.J., Pinsky P.F., Rooney B.C. (2000b). Lung cancer among workers in chromium chemical production. Am. J. Ind. Med. 38, 115–126.
• 75. Glaser U., Hochrainer D., Klöppel H., Kuhnen H. (1985). Low level chromium(VI) inhalation effects on alveolar macrophages and immune functions in Wistar rats. Arch. Toxicol. 57, 250–256.
• 76. Glaser U., Hochrainer D., Klöppel H., Oldiges H. (1986). Carcinogenicity of sodium dichromate and chromium(VI/III) oxide aerosols inhaled by male Wistar rats. Toxicology 42, 219–232.
• 77. Glaser U., Hochrainer D., Oldiges H. (1988). Investigations of the lung carcinogenic potentials of sodium dichromate and Cr VI/III oxide aerosols in Wistar rats. Environ. Hyg. 1, 111–116.
• 78. Glaser U., Hochrainer D., Steinhoff D. (1990). Investigation of irritating properties of inhaled CrVI with possible influence on its carcinogenic action. Environ. Hyg. 2, 235–245.
• 79. Goldbohm R.A., Tielemans E.L.F.P., Heederik D., Rubingh C.M., Dekkers S., Willems M.I., Dinant Kroese E. (2006). Risk estimation for carcinogens based on epidemiological data: a structured approach, illustrated by an example on chromium. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 44, 294–310.
• 80. Gomes E. (1972). Incidence of chromium-induced lesions among electroplating workers in Brazil. Ind. Med. 41(12), 21–25.
• 81. Guillemin M.P., Berode M. (1978). A study of the difference in chromium exposure in workers in two types of electroplating process. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 21, 105–112.
• 82. Gylseth B., Gundersen N., Langård S. (1977). Evaluation of chromium exposure based on a simplified method for urinary chromium determination. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 3(1), 28–31.
• 83. Haberman P.J., Baggett J.M., Berndt W.O. (1987). The effect of chromate on citrinin-induced renal dysfunction in the rat. Toxicol. Lett. 38, 83–90.
• 84. Haguenoer J.M., Dubois G., Frimat P., Cantineau A., Lefrancois H., Furon D. (1981). Mortality due to bronchopulmonary cancer in a factory producing pigments based on lead and zinc chromates. [W:] Prevention of occupational cancer, International Symposium (Occupational Safety and Health Series). Geneva, International Labour Office 46, 168–176.
• 85. Handley J., Burrows D. (1994). Dermatitis from hexavalent chromate in the accelerator of an epoxy sealant (PR1422) used in aircraft industry. Contact Dermatitis 30(4) ,193–196.
• 86. Hanslian L., Navratil J., Jurak J. i in. (1967). [Damage to the upper respiratory tract by a chromic acid aerosol]. Pracovni Lekarstvi 19, 294–298 [cyt. za: ATSDR 2012].
• 87. Hara T., Hoshuyama T., Takahashi K., Delgermaa V., Sorahan T. (2010). Cancer risk among Japanese chromium platers, 1976-2003. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 36(3), 216–221.
• 88. Hay E., Derazon H., Eisenberg Y., Natalia B. (2000). Suicide by ingestion of a CCA wood preservative. J. Emerg. Med. 19(2), 159–163.
• 89. Hayes R.B., Lilienfeld A.M., Snell L.M. (1979). Mortality in chromium production workers: a prospective study. Int. J. Epidemiol. 8, 365–374.
• 90. Hayes R.B., Sheffet A., Spirtas R. (1989). Cancer mortality among a cohort of chromium pigment workers. Am. J. Ind. Med. 16, 127–133.
• 91. Hill W.J., Ferguson W.S. (1979). Statistical analysis of epidemiological data from a chromium chemical manufacturing plant. J. Occup. Med. 21, 103–106.
• 92. Hjollund N.H.I., Bonde J.P.E., Hansen K.S. (1995). Male-mediated risk of spontaneous abortion with reference to stainless steel welding. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 21, 272–276.
• 93. Hjollund N.H.I., Bonde J.P.E., Kold Jensen T., Brink Henriksen T., Kolstad H.A., Ernst E., Giwercman A., Pritzl G., Skakkebaek N.E., Olsen J. (1998). A follow-up study of male exposure to welding and time to pregnancy. Reprod. Toxicol. 12(1), 29–37.
• 94. Hjollund N.H.I., Bonde J.P.E., Kold Jensen T., Brink Henriksen T., Andersson A.M., Kolstad H.A., Ernst E., Giwercman A., Skakkebaek N.E., Olsen J. (2000). Male-mediated spontaneous abortion among spouses of stainless steel welders. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 26(3), 187–192.
• 95. Holmes A.L., Wise S.S., Sandwick S.J., Lingle W.L., Negron V.C., Thompson W.D., Wise J.P. Sr. (2006a). Chronic exposure to lead chromate causes centrosome abnormalities and aneuploidy in human lung cells. Cancer Res. 66(8), 4041–4048.
• 96. Holmes A.L., Wise S.S., Sandwick S.J., Wise J.P. Sr. (2006b). The clastogenic effects of chronic exposure to particulate and soluble Cr(VI) in human lung cells. Mutat. Res. 610(1–2), 8–13.
• 97. HSE, Health and Safety Executive (2020). EH40/2005 Workplace exposure limits. Fourth Edition.
• 98. Huvinen M., Uitti J., Zitting A. Roto P., Virkola K., Kuikka P., Laippala P., Aitio A. (1996). Respiratory health of workers exposed to different chromium species in stainless steel production. Occup. Environ. Med. 53(11), 741–747.
• 99. Huvinen M., Uitti J., Oksa P., Palmroos P., Laippala P. (2002a). Respiratory health effects of long-term exposure to different chromium species in stainless steel production. Occup. Med. 52(4), 203–212.
• 100. Huvinen M., Mäkitie A., Järventaus H., Wolff H., Stjernvall T., Hovi A., Hirvonen A., Ranta R., Nurminen M., Norppa H. (2002b). Nasal cell micronuclei, cytology and clinical symptoms in stainless steel production workers exposed to chromium. Mutagenesis 17(5), 425–429.
• 101. Huvinen M., Pukkala E. (2013). Cancer incidence among Finnish ferrochromium and stainless steel production workers in 1967-2011: a cohort study. BMJ Open, 3:e003819; doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2013-003819.
• 102. Huvinen M., Pukkala E. (2016). Cause-specific mortality in Finnish ferrochromium and stainless steel production workers. Occup. Med. (Lond.) 66, 241–246.
• 103. IARC (1989). Mortality and cancer incidence follow-up of an historical cohort of European welders. IARC, Internal Report 1989/003. World Health Organisation, Lyon, France.
• 104. IARC (1990). Chromium and chromium compounds. Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Chromium, nickel and welding. Lyon, IARC, vol. 49, 49–256.
• 105. IARC (2012). Chromium(VI) compounds. Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Arsenic, metals, fibres and dusts. Lyon, IARC, vol. 100C, 147–167.
• 106. IOM, Institute of Occupational Medicine (2011). Health, socio-economic and environmental aspects of possible amendments to the EU Directive on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to carcinogens and mutagens at work. Summary Report, IOM Research Project: P937/99.
• 107. Jakubowski M. (1997). Monitoring biologiczny narażenia na czynniki chemiczne w środowisku pracy [Biological monitoring of exposure to chemical agents in the work environment]. Łódź, IMP, 133–141.
• 108. Johansson A., Robertson B., Curstedt T., Camner P. (1986a). Rabbit lung after inhalation of hexa- and trivalent chromium. Environ. Res. 41, 110–119.
• 109. Johansson A., Wiernik A., Jarstrand C., Camner P. (1986b). Rabbit alveolar macrophages after inhalation of hexa- and trivalent chromium. Environ. Res. 39, 372–385.
• 110. Junaid M., Murthy R.C., Saxena D.K. (1996a). Embryo- and fetotoxicity of chromium in pregestationally exposed mice. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 57, 327–334.
• 111. Junaid M., Murthy R.C., Saxena D.K. (1996b). Embryotoxicity of orally administered chromium in mice: exposure during the period of organogenesis. Toxicol. Lett. 84, 143–148.
• 112. Kalliomäki P.L., Rahkonen E., Vaaranen V., Kalliomäki K., Aittoniemi K. (1981). Lung-retained contaminants, urinary chromium and nickel among stainless steel welders. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 49, 67–75.
• 113. Kanojia R.K., Junaid M., Murthy R.C. (1996). Chromium induced teratogenicity in female rat. Toxicol. Lett. 89, 207–213.
• 114. Kanojia R.K., Junaid M., Murthy R.C. (1998). Embryo and fetotoxicity of hexavalent chromium: a long-term study. Toxicol. Lett. 95, 165–172.
• 115. Kasprzak K.S. (1991). The role of oxidative damage in metal carcinogenicity. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 4(6), 604–615.
• 116. Katz S.A., Salem H. (1993). The toxicology of chromium with respect to its chemical speciation: a review. J. Appl. Toxicol. 13(3), 217–224.
• 117. Kaufman D.B., DiNicola W., McIntosh R. (1970). Acute potassium dichromate poisoning: treated by peritoneal dialysis. Am. J. Dis. Child. 119(4), 374–376.
• 118. Keskinen H., Kalliomäki P.L., Alanko K. (1980). Occupational asthma due to stainless steel welding fumes. Clin. Allergy 10(2), 151–159.
• 119. Kim H.Y., Lee S.B., Jang B.S. (2004). Subchronic inhalation toxicity of soluble hexavalent chromium trioxide in rats. Arch. Toxicol. 78, 363–368.
• 120. Kollmeier H., Seemann J.W., Rothe G., Muller K.M., Wittig P. (1990). Age, sex, and region adjusted concentrations of chromium and nickel in lung tissue. Br. J. Ind. Med. 47, 682–687.
• 121. Langård S., Andersen A., Gylseth B. (1980). Incidence of cancer among ferrochromium and ferrosilicon workers. Br. J. Ind. Med. 37, 114–120.
• 122. Langård S., Norseth T. (1975). A cohort study of bronchial carcinomas in workers producing chromate pigments. Br. J. Ind. Med. 32, 62–65.
• 123. Langård S., Norseth T. (1979). Cancer in the gastrointestinal tract in chromate pigment workers. Arh. Hig. Rada Toksikol. 30(suppl.), 301–304.
• 124. Langård S., Vigander T. (1983). Occurrence of lung cancer in workers in producing chromium pigments. Br. J. Ind. Med. 40, 71–74.
• 125. Langård S., Andersen A., Ravnestad J. (1990). Incidence of cancer among ferrochromium and ferrosilicon workers: an extended observation period. Br. J. Ind. Med. 47, 14–19.
• 126. Last J.A., Raabe O.G., Moore P.F., Tarkington B.K. (1979). Chromate inhibition of metabolism by rat tracheal explants. II. In vivo exposures. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 47, 313–322.
• 127. LaVelle J.M. (1986a). Chromium(VI) comutagenesis: characterization of the interaction of K2CrO4 with azide. Environ. Mutagen. 87, 717–725.
• 128. LaVelle J.M. (1986b). Potassium chromate potentiates frameshift mutagenesis in E. coli and S. typhimurium. Mutat. Res. 171, 1–10.
• 129. Lee K.P., Ulrich C.E., Geil R.G., Trochimowicz H.J. (1989). Inhalation toxicity of chromium dioxide dust to rats after two years exposure. Sci. Total. Environ. 86, 83–108.
• 130. Lee C.R., Yoo C.I., Lee J., Kang S.K. (2002). Nasal septum perforation of welders. Ind. Health 40, 286–289.
• 131. Leroyer C., Dewitte J.D., Bassanets A., Boutox M., Daniel C., Clavier J. (1998). Occupational asthma due to chromium. Respiration 65(5), 403–405.
• 132. Levy L.S., Martin P.A., Bidstrup P.L. (1986). Investigation of the potential carcinogenicity of a range of chromium containing materials on rat lung. Brit. J. Ind. Med. 43(4), 243–256.
• 133. Lewalter J., Korallus U., Harzdorf C., Weidemann H. (1985). Chromium bond detection in isolated erythrocytes: a new principle of biological monitoring of exposure to hexavalent chromium. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 55, 305–318.
• 134. Li H., Chen Q., Li S., Yao W., Li L., Shi X., Wang L., Castranova V., Vallyathan V., Ernst E., Chen C. (2001). Effect of Cr(VI) exposure on sperm quality: human and animal studies. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 45(7), 505–511.
• 135. Lindberg E., Hedenstierna G. (1983). Chrome plating: symptoms, findings in the upper airways and effects on lung function. Arch. Environ. Health 38(6), 367–374.
• 136. Littorin M., Welinder H., Hultberg B. (1984). Kidney function in stainless steel welders. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 53, 279–282.
• 137. Liu C.S., Kuo H.W., Lai J.S., Lin T.I. (1998). Urinary Nacetyl-beta-glucosaminidase as an indicator of renal dysfunction in electroplating workers. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 71(5), 348–352.
• 138. Loubieres Y., de Lassence A., Bernier M., Vieillard-Baron A., Schmitt J.M., Page B., Jardin F. (1999). Acute, fatal, oral chromic acid poisoning. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 37(3), 333–336.
• 139. Lucas J.B., Kramkowski R.S. (1975). Health hazard evaluation report no. 74-87-221. Cincinnati, OH [cyt. za: EPA 1998].
• 140. Luippold R.S., Mundt K.A., Austin R.P. Liebig E., Panko J., Crump C., Crump K., Proctor D. (2003). Lung cancer mortality among chromate production workers. Occup. Environ. Med. 60(6), 451–457.
• 141. Mancuso T.F. (1975). Consideration of chromium as an industrial carcinogen. [W:] Proceedings of the international conference on heavy metals in the environment. [Red.] T.C. Hutchinson. Toronto Institute for Environmental Studies, 343–356.
• 142. Mancuso T.F. (1997a). Chromium as an industrial carcinogen. Part I. Am. J. Ind. Med. 31, 129–139.
• 143. Mancuso T.F. (1997b). Chromium as an industrial carcinogen. Part II. Chromium in human tissues. Am. J. Ind. Med. 31, 140–147.
• 144. Mancuso T.F., Hueper W.C. (1951). Occupational cancer and other health hazards in a chromate plant. A medical appraisal: I. Lung cancers in chromate workers. Ind. Med. Surg. 20, 358–363.
• 145. Matczak W., Trzcinka-Ochocka M., Chmielnicka J. (1995). Urinary excrection of chromium as an indicato of exposure to various chromium forms in MMA/SS welders. Int. J. Occup. Med. Environ. Health 4, 301–313.
• 146. Montaldi A., Zentilin L., Zordan M., Bianchi V., Lewis A.G., Clonfero E., Paglialunga S. (1987). Chromosomal effects of heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni and Pb) on cultured mammalian cells in the presence of nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA). Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 14, 183–200.
• 147. Mortensen J.T. (1988). Risk for reduced sperm quality among metal workers, with special reference to welders. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 14, 27–30.
• 148. Moulin J.J., Portefaix P., Wild P., Mur J.M., Smagghe G., Mantout B. (1990). Mortality among workers producing ferroalloys and stainless steel in France. Br. J. Ind. Med. 47, 537–543.
• 149. Moulin J.J., Wild P., Mantout B. Fournier-Betz M., Mur J.M., Smagghe G. (1993). Mortality from lung cancer and cardiovascular diseases among stainless-steel producing workers. Cancer Causes Control 4, 75–81.
• 150. Murthy R.C., Junaid M., Saxena D.K. (1996). Ovarian dysfunction in mice following chromium (VI) exposure. Toxicol. Lett. 89, 147–154.
• 151. Mutti A., Cavatorta A., Pedroni C., Borghi A., Giaroli C., Franchini I. (1979). The role of chromium accumulation in the relationship between airborne and urinary chromium in welders. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 43, 123–133.
• 152. Mutti A., Pedroni C., Arfini G., Franchini I., Minoia C., Micoli G., Baldi C. (1984). Biological monitoring of occupational exposure to different chromium compounds at various valency states. Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. 17, 35–41.
• 153. Nettesheim P., Hanna M.G. Jr., Doherty D.G., Newell R.F., Hellman A. (1971). Effect of calcium chromate dust, influenza virus, and 100 R whole-body X-radiation on lung tumor incidence in mice. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 47(5), 1129–1144.
• 154. Nettesheim P., Szakal A.K. (1972). Morphogenesis of alveolar bronchiolization. Lab. Invest. 26(2), 210–219.
• 155. Nickens K.P., Patierno S.R., Ceryak S. (2010). Chromium genotoxicity: a double-edged sword. Chem. Biol. Interact. 188(2), 276–288.
• 156. NIOSH (2013). Criteria for a recommended standard occupational exposure to hexavalent chromium. DHHS Publication No. 2013-128.
• 157. NTP, National Toxicology Program (1996a). Final report on the reproductive toxicity of potassium dichromate (hexavalent) administered in diet to SD rats (CAS no. 7778-50-9). National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, PB97125355.
• 158. NTP, National Toxicology Program (1996b). Final report on the reproductive toxicity of potassium dichromate (hexavalent) administered in diet to BALB/c mice (CAS no. 7778- 50-9). National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, PB97125363.
• 159. NTP, National Toxicology Program (1997). Final report on the reproductive toxicity of potassium dichromate (CAS No. 7778-50-9) administered in diet to BALB/c mice. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, PB97144919.
• 160. NTP, National Toxicology Program (2007). Technical report on the toxicity studies of sodium dichromate dihydrate (CAS no. 7789-12-0) administered in drinking water to male and female F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice and male BALB/c and am3-C57BL/6 mice. Toxicity Report Series, 72.
• 161. NTP, National Toxicology Program (2008). Technical report on the toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of sodium dichromate dihydrate (CAS no. 7789-12-0) in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (drinking water studies) [http://ntp.niehs.nih. gov/files/546_web_FINAL.pdf].
• 162. Okubo T., Tsuchiya K. (1977). An epidemiological study on lung cancer among chromium plating workers. Keio J. Med. 26, 171–177.
• 163. Okubo T., Tsuchiya K. (1979). Epidemiological study of chromium platers in Japan. Biol. Trace Element. Res. 1, 35–44.
• 164. Ovesen J.L, Fan Y., Chen J., Medvedovic M., Xia Y., Puga A. (2014). Long-term exposure to low-concentrations of Cr(VI) induce DNA damage and disrupt the transcriptional response to benzo[a]pyrene. Toxicology 316, 14–24.
• 165. Park H.S., Yu H.J., Jung K.S. (1994). Occupational asthma caused by chromium. Clin. Exp. Allergy 24(7), 676–681. Park R.M., Bena J. F., Stayner L.T., Smith R.J., Gibb H.J., Lees P.S. (2004). Hexavalent chromium and lung cancer in the chromate industry: a quantitative risk assessment. Risk Anal. 24(5), 1099–1108.
• 166. Park R.M., Stayner L.T. (2006). A search for thresholds and other nonlinearities in the relationship between hexavalent chromium and lung cancer. Risk Anal. 26(1), 79–88.
• 167. Pokrovskaya L.V., Shabynina N.K. (1973). [Carcinogenous hazards in the production of chromium ferroalloys.] Gig. Tr. Prof. Zabol. 17(10), 23–26.
• 168. Proctor D.M., Suh M., Mittal L., Hirsch S., Salgado R.V., Bartlett C., Van Landingham C., Rohr A., Crump K. (2016). Inhalation cancer risk assessment of hexavalent chromium based on updated mortality for Painesville chromate production workers. J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 26, 224–231.
• 169. PubChem (2020). Baza danych [https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov].
• 170. Quinteros F.A., Poliandri A.H.B., Machiavelli L.I., Cabilla J.P., Duvilanski B.H. (2007). In vivo and in vitro effects of chromium VI on anterior pituitary hormone release and cell viability. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 218, 79–87.
• 171. Rafael A.I., Almeida A., Santos P., Parreira I., Madeira V.M., Alves R., Cabrita A.M., Alpoim M.C. (2007). A role for transforming growth factor-beta apoptotic signaling pathway in liver injury induced by ingestion of water contaminated with high levels of Cr(VI). Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 224, 163–173.
• 172. Rahkonen E., Junttila M.L., Kalliomäki P.L., Olkinouora M., Koponen M., Kalliomäki K. (1983). Evaluation of biological monitoring among stainless steel welders. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health. 52, 243–255.
• 173. Rosenman K.D., Stanbury M. (1996). Risk of lung cancer among former chromium smelter workers. Am. J. Ind. Med. 29, 1491–500.
• 174. Royle H. (1975a). Toxicity of chromic acid in the chromium plating industry (1). Environ. Res. 10(1), 39–53.
• 175. Royle H. (1975b). Toxicity of chromic acid in the chromium plating industry (2). Environ. Res. 10(1), 141–163.
• 176. Rozporządzenie Ministra Rodziny, Pracy i Polityki Społecznej z dnia 12 czerwca 2018 r. w sprawie najwyższych dopuszczalnych stężeń i natężeń substancji szkodliwych dla zdrowia w środowisku pracy. DzU 2018, poz. 1286 [Regulation of the Minister of Family, Labour and Social Policy of 12 June 2018 on the maximum allowable concentrations and intensities of substances harmful to health in the work environment (Journal of Laws 2018, item 1286)].
• 177. Rozporządzenie Ministra Rodziny, Pracy i Polityki Społecznej z dnia 9 stycznia 2020 r. zmieniające rozporządzenie w sprawie najwyższych dopuszczalnych stężeń i natężeń substancji szkodliwych dla zdrowia w środowisku pracy. DzU 2020, poz. 61 [Regulation of the Minister of Family, Labour and Social Policy of 9 January 2020 amending the regulation on the maximum permissible concentrations and intensities of substances harmful to health in the work environment (Journal of Laws 2020, item 61)].
• 178. Rozporządzenie Ministra Zdrowia z dnia 13 listopada 2015 r. w sprawie jakości wody przeznaczonej do spożycia przez ludzi. DzU 2015, poz. 1989 [Regulation of the Minister of Health of 29 March 2013 November 2015 on the quality of water intended for human consumption (Journal of Laws 2015, item 1989)].
• 179. Rozporządzenie Ministra Zdrowia z dnia 24 lipca 2012 r. w sprawie substancji chemicznych, ich mieszanin, czynników lub procesów technologicznych o działaniu rakotwórczym lub mutagennym w środowisku pracy. DzU 2016, poz. 1117 ze zm. [Regulation of the Minister of Health of 24 July 2012 on chemical substances, their mixtures, agents or technological processes with carcinogenic or mutagenic effects in the work environment (Journal of Laws 2016, item 1117 as amended)].
• 180. Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH), establishing a European Chemicals Agency, amending Directive 1999/45/EC and repealing Council Regulation (EEC) No 793/93 and Commission Regulation (EC) No 1488/94 as well as Council Directive 76/769/ EEC and Commission Directives 91/155/EEC, 93/67/EEC, 93/105/EC and 2000/21/EC.
• 181. Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on classification, labelling and packaging of substances and mixtures, amending and repealing Directives 67/548/EEc and 1999/45/EC, and amending Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006.
• 182. RTECS, Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances (2013). Baza danych [cyt. za: Skowroń, Konieczko 2016).
• 183. Saner G., Yüzbaşiyan V., Çigdem S. (1984). Hair chromium concentration and chromium exrection in tannery workers. Br. J. Ind. Med. 41, 263–266.
• 184. Saryan L.A., Reedy M. (1988). Chromium determinations in a case of chromic acid ingestion. J. Anal. Toxicol. 12, 162–164 [cyt. za: EPA 1998].
• 185. SCOEL, Scientific Committee on Occupational Exposure Limits (2004). Recommendation from the: Risk assessment for hexavalent chromium. European Commission SCOEL/ SUM/86.
• 186. SCOEL, Scientific Committee on Occupational Exposure Limits (2017). Limits chromium VI compounds. Recommendation from the Scientific Committee on Occupational Exposure Limits. European Commission SCOEL/REC/386.
• 187. Seidler A., Jahnichen S., Hegewald J., Fishta A., Krug O., Ruter L., Strik C., Hallier E., Straube S. (2013). Systematic review and quantification of respiratory cancer risk for occupational exposure to hexavalent chromium. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 86(8), 961–963.
• 188. Sharma B.K., Singhal P.C., Chugh K.S. (1978). Intravascular haemolysis and acute renal failure following potassium dichromate poisoning. Postgraduate Med. J. 54(632), 414–415.
• 189. Sheffet A., Thind I., Miller A.M., Louria D.B. (1982). Cancer mortality in a pigment plant utilizing lead and zinc chromates. Arch. Environ. Health 37, 44–52.
• 190. Siegenthaler U., Laine A., Polak L. (1983). Studies on contact sensitivity to chromium in the guinea pig. The role of valence in the formation of the antigenic determinant. J. Invest. Dermatol. 80, 44–47.
• 191. Silverstein M., Mirer F., Kotelchuck D., Silverstein B., Bennett M. (1981). Mortality among workers in a die-casting and electroplating plant. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 7(suppl. 4), 156–165.
• 192. Sjögren B., Hedstrom L., Ulfvarson U. (1983). Urine chromium as an estimator of air exposure to stainless steel welding fumes. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 51, 347–354.
• 193. Sjögren B., Gustavsson A., Hedstrom L. (1987). Mortality in two cohorts of welders exposed to high- and low-levels of hexavalent chromium. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 13, 247–251.
• 194. Skowroń J., Konieczko K. (2016). Związki chromu(VI) – w przeliczeniu na Cr(VI). Dokumentacja proponowanych dopuszczalnych wielkości narażenia zawodowego [Chromium(VI) compounds – as Cr(VI). Documentation of proposed values of occupational exposure limits (OELs)]. Podst. Metod. Ocen. Środ. Pr. 2(88), 15–112.
• 195. Sorahan T., Burges D.C.L., Waterhouse J.A.H. (1987). A mortality study of nickel/chromium platers. Br. J. Ind. Med. 44(4), 250–258.
• 196. Sorahan T., Burges D.C.L., Hamilton L., Harrington J.M. (1998). Lung cancer mortality in nickel/chromium platers, 1946-95. Occup. Environ. Med. 55, 236–242.
• 197. Stanisławska M., Janasik B., Trzcinka-Ochocka M. (2011). Ocena narażenia zawodowego spawaczy na podstawie oznaczania dymów i ich składników powstających podczas spawania stali chromowo-niklowej [Assessment of occupational exposure of fumes and their components produced during stainless steel welding]. Med. Pr. 62(4), 359–368.
• 198. Steenland K., Loomis D., Shy C., Simonsen N. (1996). Review of occupational lung carcinogens. Am. J. Ind. Med. 29(5), 474–490.
• 199. Steffee C.H., Baetjer A.M. (1965). Histopathologic effects of chromate chemicals. Arch. Environ. Health 11, 66–75.
• 200. Steinhoff D., Gad S.C., Hatfield G.K., Mohr U. (1986). Carcinogenicity studies with sodium dichromate in rats. Exp. Pathol. 30, 129–141.
• 201. Stoner R.S., Tong T.G., Dart R., Sullivan J.B., Saito G., Armstrong E. (1994). Acute chromium intoxication with reinal failure after 1% body area burns from chromic acid [abstract]. Vet. Human Toxicol. 30(4), 361–362.
• 202. Stridsklev I.C., Hemmingsen B., Karlsen J.T., Schaller K.H., Raithel H.J., Langård S. (1993). Biologic monitoring of chromium and nickel among stainless steel welders using the manual arc method. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 65, 209–219.
• 203. Suzuki Y., Homma K., Minami M., Yoshikawa H. (1984). Distribution of chromium in rats exposed to hexavalent chromium and trivalent chromium aerosols. Ind. Health 22, 261–267.
• 204. Takahashi K., Okubo T. (1990). A prospective cohort study of chromium plating workers in Japan. Arch. Environ. Health 45(2), 107–111.
• 205. Tezuka M., Sadanobu S., Gomi K., Tachikawa M., Sawamura R. (1995). In vitro effect of chromium and other trace metals on mouse hepatotoxicity induced by carbon tetrachloride exposure. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 18(2), 256–261.
• 206. Tola S., Kilpiö J., Virtamo M., Haapa K. (1977). Urinary chromium as an indicatior of the exposure of welders to chromium. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 3, 192–202.
• 207. Uddin A.N., Burns F.J., Rossman T.G., Chen H., Kluz T., Costa M. (2007). Dietary chromium and nickel enhance UV carcinogenesis in skin of hairless mice. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 221(3), 329–338.
• 208. Van Heerden P.V., Jenkins I.R., Woods W.P., Rossi E., Cameron P.D. (1994). Death by tanning – a case of fatal basic chromium sulphate poisoning. Intensive Care Med. 20(2), 145–147.
• 209. Wang X., Qing Q., Xikun X., Xu j., Wang J., Zhou J., Huang S., Zhai W., Zhou H., Chen J. (1994). Chromium-induced early changes in renal function among ferrochromium-producing workers. Toxicology 90, 93–101.
• 210. Wang Z., Wu J., Humphries B., Kondo K., Jiang Y., Shi X. i in. (2018). Upregulation of histone-lysine methyltransferases plays a causal role in hexavalent chromium induced cancer stem cell-like property and cell transformation. Tox. App. Pharmacol. 342, 22–30.
• 211. Welinder H., Littorin M., Gullberg B., Skerfving S. (1983). Elimination of chromium in urine after stainless steel welding. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 9, 397–403.
• 212. Wise J.P., Orenstein J.M., Patierno S.R. (1993). Inhibition of lead chromate clastogenesis by ascorbate: relationship to particle dissolution and uptake. Carcinogenesis 14(3), 429–434.
• 213. Wise J.P. Sr., Stearns D.M., Wetterhahn K.E., Patierno S.R. (1994). Cell-enhanced dissolution of carcinogenic lead chromate particles: the role of individual dissolution products in clastogenesis. Carcinogenesis 15(10), 2249–2254.
• 214. Wise J.P. Sr., Wise S.S., Little J.E. (2002). The cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of particulate and soluble hexavalent chromium in human lung cells. Mutat. Res. 517(1–2), 221–229.
• 215. Wise S.S., Schuler J.H., Katsifis S.P., Wise J.P. Sr. (2003). Barium chromate is cytotoxic and genotoxic to human lung cells. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 42(4), 274–278.
• 216. Wise S.S., Holmes A.L., Wise J.P. Sr. (2006). Particulate and soluble hexavalent chromium are cytotoxic and genotoxic to human lung epithelial cells. Mutat. Res. 610(1–2), 2–7.
• 217. Xie H., Holmes A.L., Wise S.S., Gordon N., Wise J.P. Sr. (2004). Lead chromate-induced chromosome damage requires extracellular dissolution to liberate chromium ions but does not require particle internalization or intracellular dissolution. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 17(10), 1362–1367.
• 218. Xie H., Holmes A.L., Young J.L., Qin Q., Joyce K., Pelsue S.C., Peng C., Wise S.S., Jeevarajan A., Wallace W.T., Hammond D., Wise J.P. Sr. (2009). Zinc chromate induces chromosome instability and DNA double strand breaks in human lung cells. Toxicol. App. Pharmacol. 234(3), 293–299.
• 219. Xie H., Holmes A.L., Wise S.S., Huang S., Peng C., Wise J.P. Sr. (2007). Neoplastic transformation of human bronchial cells by lead chromate particles. Am. J. Resp. Cell. Mol. Bio. 37(5), 544–552.
• 220. Xie H., Wise S.S., Wise J.P. Sr. (2008). Deficient repair of particulate chromate-induced DNA double strand breaks leads to neoplastic transformation. Mutat. Res. 649, 230–238.
• 221. Ye J., Shi X. (2001). Gene expression profile in response to chromium induced cell stress in A549 cells. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 222(1–2), 189–197.
• 222. Zahid Z.R., Al-Hakkak Z.S., Kadhim A.H.H. i in. (1990). Comparative effects of trivalent and hexavalent chromium on spermatogenesis of the mouse. Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 25, 131–136.
• 223. Zhang J., Li X. (1987). Chromium pollution of soil and water in Jinzhou. J. Chin. Prevent. Med. 21, 262–264 [cyt. za: EPA 1998].
• 224. Zhang Z., Leonard S.S., Wang S., Vallyathan V., Castranova V., Shi X. (2001). Cr(VI) induces cell growth arrest through hydrogen peroxide-mediate reactions. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 222(1–2), 77–83.

Uwagi

Opracowanie rekordu ze środków MNiSW, umowa Nr 461252 w ramach programu "Społeczna odpowiedzialność nauki" - moduł: Popularyzacja nauki i promocja sportu (2021).