Contemporary Africa is a very specific expanse where territories and boundaries always played major role. The shape of boundaries is one of the main problems in African countries since long time. Boundaries imposed by colonist countries often didn’t mirror the real divisions and differences on relevant territory. These days many scientists notice a huge value of boundaries and territories on African continent. One of them is Achille Mbembe - theorist of post colonialism, African issues expert and the author of some well-known political essays. According to Mbembe a boundary is not always the end, it's often just the beginning of wide-ranging consequences in behaviour of some objects of foreign affairs. Colonialism and its results are in his opinion the first factor that impacted and still does on territorial situation in Africa. The second is a regional integration that is nowadays happening in Africa. Mbembe marks out three parts of African continent and pays attention to some connections among them. In his opinion every region, every area has its use and can be domesticated even if is regarded as marginal. Africa is constantly pulling itself apart and taking on new shapes under the combined effects of demography, massive urbanisation and the economic, military and religious ambitions being pursued.
Political parties Law and parties’ statutes contain some information about party structure and organization. One of its aspects is the institution of membership. The article describes rules and requirements of membership in Polish party system and in particular in some of the most important political formations that had or still have its parliamentary representatives. The problem of membership is not edited in details in Polish law. There are some abstract ideas and clues. There are also two special institutions: prohibition of membership in political parties and suspension of membership. They regard some professions and functions in political system of Poland. They are also very controversial because seem to be inconsistent with constitution. Political parties’ statutes aren’t too complicated in the matter of membership as well. They usually contain the revision of legal matters. They are similar in most of parties, but what’s interesting not all of parties project an open membership. Some of them expect their future members to fulfi ll additional conditions.
PL
Ustawa o partiach politycznych i statuty poszczególnych ugrupowań zawierają informacje między innymi na temat struktury i organizacji partii. Jednym z aspektów, którymi się zajmują, jest instytucja członkostwa w partiach politycznych. Artykuł opisuje zasady i wymogi członkostwa w polskim systemie partyjnym, a w szczególności w kilku najważniejszych ugrupowaniach parlamentarnych polskiej sceny politycznej po 1989 roku. Zagadnienie członkostwa nie jest zbyt szczegółowo unormowane w polskim prawie. Mamy raczej do czynienia z kilkoma ogólnymi zasadami i wskazówkami. Istnieją także dwie szczególne instytucje prawne: zakaz przynależności do partii politycznych oraz zawieszenie członkostwa w partii na czas sprawowania określonej funkcji. Dotyczą one określonych profesji czy funkcji wykonywanych w ramach systemu politycznego RP. Są to rozwiązania kontrowersyjne, ponieważ stoją w sprzeczności z zasadami konstytucyjnymi. Statuty partii politycznych również nie zawierają zbyt szczegółowych rozwiązań dotyczących instytucji członkostwa. Powtarzają w zasadzie zapisy ustawowe i konstytucyjne. Są też w większości ugrupowań podobne do siebie, chociaż warto zauważyć, że nie wszystkie partie preferują członkostwo otwarte. Niektóre stwarzają dodatkowe wymogi dla swoich przyszłych członków.
It is very unusual what happened in Botswana after the colonialism period. On a contrary to other African countries they managed to change the poverty into development and wealth. What's more important Botswana avoided wars, humanitarian catastrophes and internal conflicts. The country introduced democracy in 1966 and stayed democratic and multi-party till today. One may say: they discovered diamonds and that's the whole story. Not exactly, because that was not the only factor. Apart from this diamonds or gold were discovered in many African countries and they failed to move forward, get wealthier and more developed. So why did Botswana succeed? How they did it? What were the factors that affected such transformation? The article answers these questions and also describes the process of political and economical changes. It also introduces into country's party system and tries to forecast what will become in the future Botswana.
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