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Wielka Brytania wobec kształtowania się amerykańskiej polityki „otwartych drzwi” w Chinach (1898–1900)

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Pajor J.

Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Historica

2012

tom 89

The intention of this paper is to present how the British idea of the Open Door in China permeated to the United States and influenced the diplomatic actions of this country. Another matter covered here is Whitehall’s reaction to the first and second series of the Open Door notes, issued by the Department of State. The Open Door doctrine, encompassing the principles of equal commercial treatment and maintenance of China’s territorial integrity, was for many years one of the pillars of the British Far Eastern policy. However, when in the aftermath of China’s severe defeat in war with Japan foreign Powers engaged in creating spheres of influence in the Middle Kingdom, Great Britain diverged from its traditional position. London, having commercial preponderance in China, was at first against the dismemberment of this country, but eventually – since its endeavours to gain support of other Powers for the Open Door policy proved abortive – decided to perpetuate its sphere of influence. The United States, approached by the British in March 1898, were unwilling to act at that time, nor did they want to align with anyone. Nevertheless, soon afterwards the concept of the Open Door started gaining popularity among American politicians mainly due to various British influences. Therefore at the turn of 1898 and 1899 London reiterated its proposition to cooperate in China, but was rejected. The United States were determined to act alone and between 1899 and 1900 issued two series of the Open Door notes. Whilst Great Britain cordially applauded these pronouncements in general, she tried to obtain some concessions, and was partially successful. Once the Open Door policy was internationally accepted, Foreign Office again made it a fundamental element of its Chinese policy.

Stanowisko USA wobec Chin podczas powstania Yihetuan

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Pajor J.

Azja-Pacyfik

2011

nr XIV

183-210

The United States, as well as the other powers, were surprised by the course of the Yihetuan Uprising. When in early 1900 an anti-foreigner rebellion engulfed Northern China, the Department of State was compelled to act. The main concern was to rescue Americans beleaguered in the Celestial Empire. Another priority was the avoidance of war with Peking. That is why American troops participated only in the allied expeditionary forces, but refrained from engaging in hostilities with the Chinese army. Although the Manchu government formally declared war on foreign powers, the United States did not consider itself to be a belligerent and tried to convince other countries to embrace this view. Washington was also determined to thwart the designs of some powers to exploit the prevailing turmoil as a pretext for making further encroachments on China. Since this could pose a serious threat the Open Door Policy, which had just been adopted by the American diplomacy, the United States decided to make another enunciation, emphasizing the necessity of preserving China’s territorial integrity. In general the Department of State’s actions during the height of the Yihetuan Uprising were rather successful. Compatriots were liberated, an all-out war was averted and looting prevented. Soon after the allied expedition reached Peking, the Yihetuan Uprising was suppressed. In the meantime, negotiations to settle the problems which had been caused by this upheaval began. During the negotiations, the United States tried to limit the centrifugal tendencies and play a moderating role, blocking the most vindictive demands and insisting on watering down others. They also advocated the reforms which would improve conditions for foreign trade with China. This time American diplomacy was definitely less successful, because the majority of powers favored harsh, sometimes even exorbitant demands and remained uninterested in commercial issues. The relative failure was not only caused by a general willingness of the powers to severely punish China and the fact that the United States did not have any formal ally who would support its propositions, but also by Washington vacillations between strictly adhering to the Open Door Policy and departing from it.