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EN
Geodiversity is an important part of environmental and national assets as it plays a fundamental role in contributing to sustainable development. However, it remains one of the least recognised and valued, largely because its attractiveness is still not fully appreciated. Earth sciences inspires our awareness and knowledge. Traditionally, geological museums collected fossils, rocks, minerals and archaeological objects, first to serve the scientific community and then to perform various educational functions for non-specialists. Currently, natural museums frequently became large theme parks, presenting in situ original fossils, models and applying variety of multimedia technologies. On the other hand, such large educational centres serve as nuclei for geoparks (a geopark means a clearly defined territory, which includes a particular geological heritage and a sustainable territorial development strategy supported by a program to promote preserving the geological heritage and development, including the economic one). Therefore, geological museums, theme parks and geoparks work together and they have direct impact on the territory by influencing its inhabitants' living conditions and environment. The objective is to promote geological knowledge and simultaneously to enable the inhabitants to reappropriate the value of the geological heritage and actively participate in the cultural revitalization of a given territory as a whole. Examples from China and Poland show how it can be done, irrespectively of scale and character of naturalmonuments and geodiversity.
2
Content available remote The epicontinental Lower Jurassic of Poland
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EN
During the Early Jurassic times terrigenous, continental, marginal-marine and marine sediments up to 1400 m in thickness were deposited in a large epeiric basin extending across Poland. These strata are defined herein as the Kamienna Group, which is subdivided into 13 lithoformations (Fm.). Lithofacies description, recognition of depositional systems and subsystems and determination of their fluctuation in space and time allowed a high-resolution sequence stratigraphic analysis. Sedimentation in the shallow (usually not more than 10-20 m deep), epeiric Early Jurassic basin of Poland was particularly sensitive to reflect changes in sea level. Except for the ammonite-bearing Pliensbachian deposits in Western Poland, biostratigraphical resolution in marginal-marine and continental deposits is usually of a lesser precision. However, an internally consistent sequence stratigraphic scheme of Poland can be compared with fossiliferous marine sediments of the Ligurian cycle of United Kingdom and France. The minor sequences identified within the Ligurian cycle play a very important role in correlation as they can be recognized in the Polish Basin. Concerning the range of sea level changes, the Exxon model was also adopted and ten of the Exxon Early Jurassic depositional sequences (I-X) were identified in the Polish Lower Jurassic. Transgressive systems tracts prevail in sedimentary record and are represented either by retrogradational or aggradational facies architecture, and high-stand systems tracts are represented by progradational facies architecture. A typical marginal - marine parasequence is usually more complex than a simple "quick flooding-gradual prograding" model - transgressive deposits are usually preserved and "parasequence maximum flooding surfaces" can be distinguished. Correlative significance of transgressive surfaces is enhanced when they are coupled with their nonmarine correlative surfaces. Development of transgression with its coeval effects in continental deposits is discussed and non-marine correlative surfaces of the transgressive surfaces are documented - a "step-wise", retrogradational development of transgression with its nonmarine correlative surfaces within alluvial and deltaic systems is particularly well recognized in the Early Jurassic Polish Basin. The regional cross sections and cross sections of the whole Polish Basin showing dominant depositional systems and sequence stratigraphic correlation, as well as "time-tuned" palaeogeographical maps of the Polish Basin in Early Jurassic are presented. Despite existence of some regional dislocation zones occurring along the edges of the Mid-Polish Trough, which shaped the sedimentation and sediment thickness contrast (for example the Nowe Miasto-Iłża Fault), a gradual decrease of sediment thickness outwards the axis of the Mid-Polish Trough prevails. Additionally, occurrence of conspicuous zones of increased subsidence, which are actually perpendicular to the Mid-Polish Trough (for example the "Mazurian Way") indicates that there is no reason to regard the Mid-Polish Trough in any respect as a "rift basin", at least in the Early Jurassic times. Depositional history of the Early Jurassic in Poland provides a good case study concerning sequence correlation between marine and non-marine sedimentary successions.
EN
The Sołtyków exposure is an old, long time abandoned clay pit. This exposure became known as a classical outcrop of alluvial-lacustrine deposits. Floral remains point to the earliest Jurassic (Lias 1-2) age, and the sequence stratigraphic correlation allows to narrow its age range to the Early Hettangian (Planorbis biochronozone). Sołtyków exposure fits the avulsion-controlled (crevassing- anastomosing) fluvial sedimentation model, however, some features such as laterally-accreted bedding point also to presence of high-sinuosity/meandering streams. Relatively thick and individualised package of lacustrine deposits occurring in the Sołtyków outcrop points to some permanency of the lake/swamp area during deposition of the sediments visible in the outcrop. Palaeosols are both of Podzol and Histosol type. The plant fossils in the Sołtyków exposure are very abundant and well preserved. The list of plants includes Neocalamites, the matoniacean, osmundacean and other indeterminate ferns, as well as pteridosperms, benettitaleans and conifers. Non-marine trace fossils comprise Coprinisphaera, Scoyeniaand aquatic Mermia ichnofacies. Other fossils that occur in Sołtyko?w are represented by Unionidae freshwater bivalve assemblage, insect remains, fresh-water ostracodes and scales of palaeoniscid fish. The Sołtyków exposure is well known Early Jurassic tracksite with numerous dinosaur footprints, mainly left by theropods and sauropods, and early mammalian footprints. The dinosaur nesting ground was also described. Recently, the Sołtyków exposure has been declared a natural reserve. Nature conservation problems are discussed. Due to many unique finds in Sołtyków (the oldest known evidence of gregarious ethology of dinosaurs, the biggest known Early Jurassic theropod footprints, rich and well-preserved invertebrate ichnoforms and plant remains, this exposure should be enlisted on the UNESCO World Heritage List (in geological cathegory). Moreover, the idea of “Kamienna Valley” geopark, comprising Sołtyków and other valuable outcrops in the region, is introduced.
4
Content available The epicontinental Lower Jurassic of Poland
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EN
During the Early Jurassic times terrigenous, continental, marginal-marine and marine sediments up to 1400 m in thickness were deposited in a large epeiric basin extending across Poland. These strata are defined herein as the Kamienna Group, which is subdivided into 13 newly distinguished or re-defined lithoformations (Fm.). Two new members (Mb.) are also defined. Detailed study of exposures and 35 fully cored boreholes has integrated data from lithology, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, body fossils, boron content, clay minerals and palynology. This has allowed lithofacies description, recognition of depositional systems and subsystems and determination of their fluctuation in space and time leading to a high-resolution sequence stratigraphic analysis. Sedimentation in the shallow, epeiric Early Jurassic basin of Poland was particularly sensitive to reflect changes in sea level. Analyses of accommodation space within regular progradational successions associated with highstand systems tracts shows that the Early Jurassic basin in Poland was generally not deeper than some tens of meters, most frequently it was less than 20 m deep. Except for the ammonite-bearing Pliensbachian deposits in Western Poland, biostratigraphical resolution in marginal-marine and continental deposits is usually of a lesser precision. However, an internally consistent sequence stratigraphic scheme of Poland can be compared with fossiliferous marine sediments of the Ligurian cycle of United Kingdom and France. The minor sequences identified within the Ligurian cycle play very important role in correlation as they can be recognised in the Polish Basin, although they may show some differences in dating and range. In the Polish Basin, lowstand (LST) and falling stage systems tract (FSST) correspond with erosion/non deposition stages at the sequence boundaries. Concerning the range of sea level changes, the Exxon model was also adopted and ten of the Exxon Early Jurassic depositional sequences were identified in the Polish Lower Jurassic and are labelled I-X. Transgressive systems tracts prevail in sedimentary record and are represented either by retrogradational or aggradational facies architecture, and high-stand systems tracts are represented by progradational facies architecture. Parasequence boundaries (flooding surfaces) were defined based on careful regional/spatial facies analysis. A marginal-marine parasequence is usually more complex than a simple "quick flooding-gradual prograding" model, conventionally interpreted in the marine basins. Due to common preservation of transgressive deposits within marginal-marine parasequences, besides the well-defined flooding surfaces the "parasequence maximum flooding surfaces" were distinguished. The best correlative horizons, particularly in the basin centre, are represented by sequence boundaries, while the maximum flooding surfaces or their correlatives are well identifiable in the marginal parts of the basin. Intensity and frequency of erosional processes in the marginal parts of the basin mean that depositional sequence boundaries are difficult to recognise because of "amalgamation" of stacked and highly reduced depositional sequences. Correlative significance is of transgressive surfaces is enhanced when they are coupled with their nonmarine correlative surfaces. Development of transgression with its coeval effects in continental deposits is discussed and non-marine correlative surfaces of the transgressive surfaces are documented. Once recognised and arranged, sequences and parasequences in the marginal basins (like the Polish Basin) can help to solve some problems concerning identification and range of major bounding surfaces and systems tracts in open marine basins in Europe, particularly in the Early Toarcian. The regional cross sections and cross sections of the whole Polish Basin showing dominant depositional systems and sequence stratigraphic correlation, as well as "time"tuned" palaeogeographical maps of the Polish Basin in Early Jurassic are presented. Subsidence varied through time along the Mid-Polish Trough, between the Holy Cross Mts and Pomerania. In Hettangian and Late Sinemurian the subsidence rate was higher in the Holy Cross Mts and lower in Pomerania region, while in Early Sinemurian and Early Pliensbachian times the situation was opposite. Despite existence of some regional dislocation zones occurring along the edges of the Mid-Polish Trough, which shaped the sedimentation and sediment thickness contrast (for example the Nowe Miasto-Iłża fault), a gradual decrease of sediment thickness outwards the axis of the Mid-Polish Trough prevails. Additionally, occurrence of conspicuous zones of increased subsidence, which are actually perpendicular to the Mid-Polish Trough (for example the "Mazurian Way"), there is no reason to regard the Mid-Polish Trough in any respect as a "rift basin", at least in the Early Jurassic times.
PL
We wczesnej jurze, w rozległym epikontynentalnym basenie rozciągającym się na obszarze Polski, osadziło się do 1400 metrów utworów terygenicznych pochodzenia lądowego, marginalno-morskiego i morskiego. Utwory te są zdefiniowane w niniejszej pracy jako Grupa Kamiennej (Gr.), która została podzielona na 12 nowo wyróżnionych lub zredefiniowanych litoformacji (Fm.). Wyróżniono też dwa nowe ogniwa (Mb.). Szczegółowe badania obejmujące dane litofacjalne, petrologiczne, ichnologiczne, paleontologiczne, geochemiczne i palinologiczne przeprowadzono w odsłonięciach i 35 pełnordzeniowanych otworach wiertniczych. Pozwoliły one na wyróżnienie litofacji, interpretację systemów i subsystemów depozycyjnych oraz ich czasoprzestrzennej zmienności, a następnie na przeprowadzenie wysokorozdzielczej analizy sekwencyjnej. Wczesnojurajska sedymentacja w płytkim, epikontynentalnym basenie Polski w sposób szczególnie wyraźny odzwierciedlała zmiany poziomu morza. Analiza przestrzeni akomodacji depozycyjnej w obrębie regularnych sukcesji progradacyjnych ciągów systemowych stabilizacji wysokiego poziomu morza (HST) wskazuje, że głębokości wczesnojurajskich zbiorników sedymentacyjnych Polski nie przekraczały wartości rzędu kilkudziesięciu metrów, a najczęściej były to głębokości maksymalnie do 20 metrów. Z wyjątkiem morskich utworów pliensbachu na Pomorzu, które zawierają amonity, podział biostratygraficzny marginalno-morskich i lądowych utworów dolnej jury charakteryzuje się na ogół słabą rozdzielczością. Mimo to, spójny podział stratygraficzno-sekwencyjny dolnej jury w Polsce pozwala na jego porównanie ze schematami sporządzonymi dla bogatych w skamieniałości przewodnie utworów dolnej jury cyklu liguryjskiego w Wielkiej Brytanii i Francji. Zwłaszcza sekwencje krótkookresowe wyróżnione w obrębie tego cyklu są przydatne w korelacji sekwencji, ponieważ są one rozpoznawalne w basenie polskim. Ciągi systemowe niskiego poziomu morza (LST) i ciągi systemowe opadającego poziomu morza (FSST) odpowiadają czasowo w basenie polskim lukom związanym z erozją lub brakiem depozycji na granicach sekwencji. Jeśli chodzi o skalę zmian poziomu morza, również model Exxon Research Group okazał się przydatny do przeprowadzenia korelacji, a dziesięć "exxonowskich' sekwencji depozycyjnych (I-X) zostało wyróżnionych w obrębie utworów dolnojurajskich basenu polskiego. W zapisie osadowym dominują utwory transgresywnych ciągów systemów i są one reprezentowane zarówno przez retrogradacyjne jak i agradacyjne sukcesje facjalne. Utwory ciągów systemowych stabilizacji wysokiego poziomu morza odpowiadają wyłącznie progradacyjnym, regresywnym sukcesjom facjalnym. Granice parasekwencji w obrębie sekwencji depozycyjnych zostały zdefiniowane na podstawie dokładnej czasoprzestrzennej analizy facjalnej w poszczególnych regionach. Parasekwencje marginalno-morskie mają na ogół bardziej złożoną architekturę depozycyjną, niż przyjmowano do tej pory w prostym schemacie szybkiego zalewu i stopniowej, powolnej progradacji. Konieczne było wyróżnienie powierzchni maksymalnego zalewu dla poszczególnych parasekwencji, występują one w różnych odległościach od powierzchni zalewu będących dolnymi granicami parasekwencji. Najlepszymi powierzchniami korelacyjnymi w centrum basenu są granice sekwencji, podczas gdy w obszarach marginalnych najłatwiej wyróżnić powierzchnie maksymalnego zalewu i ich odpowiedniki. W marginalnych partiach basenu sedymentacyjnego częstotliwość i intensywność erozji oraz niewielka subsydencja powodowały często nakładanie się na siebie poszczególnych sekwencji i ich granic, co utrudnia ich wyróżnianie i korelację. Dokładność korelacji powierzchni transgresji zwiększa się, kiedy są one skorelowane z ich lądowymi odpowiednikami. Udokumentowano szczegółowo rozwój transgresji i efekty tego procesu na sąsiadujących obszarach lądowych i podano kryteria wyróżniania niemorskich, korelatywnych odpowiedników powierzchni transgresji. Określona w polskim basenie sedymentacyjnym sukcesja sekwencji i parasekwencji może być pomocna w rozwiązywaniu problemów związanych z identyfikacją i zasięgiem głównych granic korelacyjnych i ciągów systemowych w pełnomorskich, głębszych basenach Europy, co szczególnie przydatne okazało się dla utworów wczesnego toarku. Wykonano regionalne oraz ogólnopolskie przekroje stratygraficzno-sekwencyjne basenu wczesnojurajskiego w Polsce wraz z mapami sporządzonymi dla konkretnych, czasowych powierzchni korelacyjnych, które przedstawiają zmienność czasowo-przestrzenną dominujących systemów depozycyjnych. Tempo subsydencji wzdłuż bruzdy środkowopolskiej zmieniało się w czasie, wykazywało też fluktuacje regionalne - w hetangu i późnym synemurze tempo subsydencji w segmencie świętokrzyskim bruzdy śródpolskiej było większe niż w segmencie pomorskim, a we wczesnym synemurze i wczesnym pliensbachu sytuacja była odwrotna. W pliensbachu i toarku zaznaczały się strefy zwiększonej subsydencji usytuowane prostopadle do rozciągłości bruzdy śródpolskiej (tak zwana "droga mazurska"). Wzdłuż krawędzi bruzdy istniały regionalne strefy dyslokacyjne, wywierające wpływ na sedymentację i kontrast miąższości (np. strefa Nowe Miasto-Iłża). Biorąc jednak pod uwagę na ogół stopniowe zmniejszanie się miąższości osadów na zewnątrz od osi bruzdy i wspomniane strefy zwiększonej subsydencji prostopadłe do osi bruzdy śródpolskiej, nie można w żaden sposób wiązać wczesnojurajskiego etapu rozwoju bruzdy śródpolskiej z procesami ryftowania.
EN
Storage of strategic hydrocarbon resources (petroleum, fuel and natural gas resources) in subsurface repositories (geologic structures) is a strategic necessity in countries largely dependent on oil and gas supply from abroad. Benefits of creating strategic petroleum reserves (SPRs) and natural gas storage facilities for these countries are obvious: SPRs are a first line of defense against interruption in critical oil and natural gas supplies, and they provide economic security and increase regional stability. Easily accessible sites located near the nodes of existing pipelines, main industrial centers and NATO bases should be targeted for safe storage of liquid fuels, crude oil or gas. With little national storage capacity, Poland has been near extremis a few times due to interruptions in the flow of crude oil and natural gas. It is in the Polish national interest for the country to establish a Strategic Petroleum Reserve for liquid fuels and natural gas reserves, which would provide a cushion against the negative impacts of a hydrocarbon shortage on its economy and national security. The same problem concerns most of the new NATO member countries in Central and Eastern Europe (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia, Czech Republic, and Hungary). These countries are potential beneficiaries of this project. Among them, only Poland is blessed with abundant geologic salt structures, i.e. thick bedded salts and salt domes. Therefore, Poland can provide storage capacity also for the NATO allies (and other EU members). The Department’s agent in this effort is the Polish Geological Institute (PGI), performing duties of the Polish Geological Survey. PGI established cooperation with the Idaho National Laboratory (INL) in the United States and the Turkish Petroleum Corporation (TPAO). The project was accepted and implemented as a short-term project in April 2005 (NATO-CCMS project EAP.CMS-PS 982185). The purpose of this project was to evaluate the feasibility of using subsurface salt deposit repositories for strategic oil, liquid fuel and gas storage, and for using generated brines to improve the ecological and environmental conditions of the Baltic Sea. The last expansion of NATO involves the necessity of developing new military bases, including the need for safe storage of logistic fuels. Occurrence of salt domes nearby most of the planned bases in Poland provides an excellent place for safe (both from the military and environmental point of view) storage of fuels. Only dry salt caverns (without use of salt brine, operated by pressurized nitrogen) will be applied for logistic fuel storage. Previous experimental studies had shown that some logistic fuels (including jet fuels) stored in salt caverns for five years did not change significantly as far as concerns their chemical and physical properties and they were still fully usable after five years of such storage. Construction of fuel repositories for NATO bases in salt domes also provides an environmental advantage. The traditional approach (adopted for example in the existing NATO "Minimum Military Requirement" and Capability Package- CP 22) uses steel tanks. However, surface steel tanks are exposed to natural weather hazards and potential terrorist attack - not mentioning their vulnerability to warfare attacks. Steel tanks hidden at a shallow depth (up to some 20 m) in the ground are much more expensive, although somewhat safer-the threats mentioned above are reduced. However, underground storage of fuel poses another threat - leakage of toxic fuel might be hazardous to groundwater supplies. Construction inexpensive repositories at a depth of several hundred meters, in naturally isolated rock salt, make them safe concerning any contamination of the environment and other threats. Above all, such repositories meet strategic requirements - they are practically immune to any warfare attack. Five salt domes in central Poland were indicated as the most suitable sites for logistic fuel repositories and preliminary geological assessment was prepared. In the future this project should gain more interest because of security issues and may warrant further investigation for Poland as well as other NATO countries. Construction of repositories in salt provides a substantial cost advantage (underground salt repositories are about 85% - 800 % less costly than traditional surface steel tanks). Moreover, storage of hydrocarbons in geologic structures is much safer from a strategic and ecological point of view. Most of the salt deposits considered for an SPR in Poland were formed in the Late Permian epoch. The proposed full scale project also addresses potential ecological problems connected with the by-product from leaching large salt caverns. Construction of large strategic petroleum repositories can produce tens of million of tons of salt brine. As the big petroleum repositories will likely be built at the Baltic Sea coast, this project involves a new paradigm concerning treatment and disposal of the excess salt brine. The salt brine can be used as an agent for re-cultivation of the Baltic sea-bottom where anoxic conditions prevail. Due to the influx of anthropogenic contaminants (industrial discharges, phosphate and nitrogen communal and agricultural pollutants, etc.), the periodic, natural influx of heavier and well-oxygenated waters from the North Sea can no longer cope with the negative effects of resulting eutrophication. This is by far the most severe ecological problem in the entire Baltic Sea region. It is proposed that diluted and oxygenated, but somewhat heavier than sea water salt brine be pumped through a pipeline directly to the deeper parts of the Baltic Sea. The enhanced (oxygenated) salt brine could serve to re-establish the life and improve the ecological environment in the Baltic Sea bottom, a positive environmental impact. This project may contribute to fulfillment of at least four of the general objectives of NATO-SPS projects- it reduces to a minimum the negative environmental impact of both civil and military repositories, it conducts regional studies including cross-border activities (particularly in the field of Baltic Sea protection), by building new repositories it can serve to prevent possible crises related to scarcity of energy resources from interruption of oil or gas supplies, and it addresses emerging risks to the environment by using salt brine as an agent contributing to biological recovery of the Baltic Sea.
EN
Recent conferences in Germany and Poland outlined future scenarios of energy mix and CCS in Poland.With CCS the emissions of CO2 can be reduced considerably, despite technical and economical challenges. Fossil fuels will maintain significant share in energy mix in next decades due to sufficient supply and relatively low prices, which will negatively influence the growth of renewable energy. Poland might play a major role in development of CCS, particularly in research and development (R&D). Industry should play a key role in implementation of new technologies, including CCS (Carbon Capture and Storage) and CCU (Carbon Capture and Utility). Global agreements, international strategies and projects are necessary, while achievement of these are grim due to conflicting political and economical interests. Market-oriented approach (including universal carbon tax) is now more promising than technology-oriented one. The use of shale gas , is in general environmentally desirable way for Poland. Professional public communication and education is urgently needed due to an inherited deficit of social capital and irresponsible activity of some NGOs, often driven by particular interests.
EN
CO2 capture and geological storage (CCS) should be implemented in Poland, if combustion of coal will remain as a main source of energy in Poland, and European Union climate policy requirements are to be met. Despite existing experience and number of existing operational projects worldwide, a common fear concerning safety of the onshore, large scale geological storage of CO2 still occurs. Because of that fear, some European countries substantially limited even demonstration CCS projects. However, opinions on the method's safety should be based on solid geological evidence, not fears. Herein I provide some evidence from the Lower Jurassic basin in Poland that the method is safe. The key issue is the geological integrity of a seal. High-resolution sequence stratigraphy verified by chemostratigraphical correlation based on 13C isotope correlation, proved that one of key seal formations, the lower Toarcian Ciechocinek formation composed of clayey-muddy rocks with sandstone intercalation, is integral in terms of its lithology and spatial extent over the larger part of the Polish basin and provides an excellent seal. Origin of such favourable properties is attributed to climatic conditions (supergreenhouse conditions on land) during the Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event and high sea level at that time. Moreover, similar conditions occurred for four times during the Early–Middle Jurassic times, creating another over-regional seal formations in the large parts of the Polish Mesozoic epicontinental basin. It can allow a tiered sequestration method, using several sequestrartion systems (reservoir-seal couples) one above another, thus allowing much more voluminous and effective storage of CO2 and methane (for economic purposes) in selected structures.
PL
W otworze Cianowice 2 (okolice Krakowa), bezpośrednio na niezgodności erozyjnej ze zmetamorfizowanymi łupkami neoproterozoiku (ediakaru), a pod węglanowymi utworami jury środkowej (keloweju), występuje ponad 20-metrowy kompleks utworów silikoklastycznych (brekcje, zlepieńce, piaskowce, mułowce z podrzędnymi wkładkami węgli, syderytów i margli). Wykonane w czterech próbkach analizy palinologiczne pozwoliły uzyskać stosunkowo ubogi zespół miosporowy o szerokim zasięgu stratygraficznym, niedający rozstrzygających rezultatów, potwierdzający bardzo ogólnie jedynie jurajski wiek utworów (Jadwiga Ziaja, inf. ustna). Pozycja stratygraficzna tych utworów nie jest jasna – mogą one należeć zarówno do wczesnej jury, do środkowej jury, jak i obu tych epok, a najniższe warstwy grubookruchowe mogą być jeszcze starsze i reprezentować późny trias. Cały nawiercony kompleks silikoklastyczny został podzielony na pięć wyraźnych sukcesji. W poszczególnych sukcesjach dominują podrzędne cykle proste o ziarnie (i energii przepływu) malejący ku górze. Sukcesja 1 składa się z brekcji i zlepieńców o nieuporządkowanej strukturze, co wskazuje na spływy mułowe (soliflukcyjne), przechodzące być może w spływy wodne w środowisku stożków aluwialnych. Sukcesja 2 składa się z pięciu cykli prostych piaszczysto-mułowcowych, ze śladami wegetacji roślinnej, utworzonych na równi rzecznej. Sukcesja 3 składa się w całości z mułowców o genezie jeziorno-bagiennej, z licznymi śladami wegetacji roślinnej i węglami w stropie. Sukcesje 4 i 5 to ponownie sukcesje złożone z cykli prostych o genezie rzecznej. Cały profil badanych utworów silikoklastycznych wykazuje peneplenizację żywej początkowo rzeźby obszarów źródłowych i ciągły spadek energii procesów depozycyjnych ku górze aż do stropu sukcesji 3 z węglami, a następnie ponowny nawrót równi rzecznej. Poszczególne sukcesje są oddzielone powierzchniami nieciągłości (przeważnie erozyjnymi, jedynie spąg sukcesji 3 ma charakter odpowiednika powierzchni mogącej być korelatywną powierzchnią transgresji), które mogą stanowić regionalne powierzchnie korelacyjne (zwłaszcza dolne granice sukcesji 1, 3 i 5). Sukcesje o dolnych granicach erozyjnych mogą odpowiadać sekwencjom depozycyjnym. Porównania regionalne otworu wiertniczego Cianowice 2 z otworem Parkoszowice 58 BN położonym ok. 40 km na północny zachód skłaniają do uznania tych utworów wstępnie za jurę dolną (najprawdopodobniej pliensbach–toark), grubookruchowe utwory sukcesji 1 w spągu otworu mogą reprezentować także wiek późnotriasowy. Do czasu uzyskania bardziej precyzyjnych danych biostratygraficznych lub chemostratygraficznych nie można potwierdzić tego z całą pewnością ponad stwierdzenie, że są to utwory jurajskie starsze od keloweju.
EN
In the Cianowice 2 borehole (located in the vicinity of Kraków), straight on the erosional unconformity on the top of metamorphosed Neo-Proterozoic (Ediacaran) shales and below carbonate deposits of Callovian, 20 meters thick interval of siliciclastic rocks has been encountered. The siliciclastic rocks are composed of conglomerates, sandstones, mudstones and subordinate intercalations of coal, siderite and marls. Stratigraphical position of this interval can be inferred based on poorly-preserved miospore assemblage, spanning relatively long geological time (Jadwiga Ziaja, pers. comm.) – it can represent either Early or Middle Jurassic, or both of those epochs, while the lowermost coarse-grained package can be even of an older, i.e. Triassic age. The interval was subdivided into 5 well-distinguished sedimentary successions, separated by bounding surfaces, mostly of erosional character – only succession 3 starts with sharp lithological contrast between sandy deposits and overlying mudstones, which reflects flooding and rapid retrogradation (either lacustrine or lagoonal). All these bounding surfaces (particularly bottoms of successions 1, 3 and 5) are of regional correlative significance-erosional bounding surfaces can represent sequence boundaries, while bottom of the succession 3 can represent correlative surface of a transgression. In each succession, except for the lowermost one, subordinate fining-upward cycles are dominating. They represent diminishing-upward energy of transport. The succession 1 is composed of breccia and conglomerates with chaotic structure, indicative of mudflow – dominated fans, possibly passing into alluvial fans and back to the mudflow fan again in the top. There is a marked lithological contrast (possibly connected also with considerable hiatus) between the coarse-grained deposits of succession 1 and following successions built of fine-grained sandstones, siltstones, mudstones and claystones. The succession 2 is composed of five fining-upward cycles, indicative of fluvial environment (fluvial plain), with traces of plant vegetation. The succession 3 is entirely composed of mudstones of lacustrine origin, with numerous traces of plant vegetation, siderite concretions and bands and coals at the top. Successions 4 i 5 again contain typical fining-upward fluvial cycles with traces of plant vegetation. The overall profile shows peneplanation of a landscape and continuous diminishing of energy of sedimentary processes up to the top of succession 3 marked with coals. Then, fluvial sedimentation returned. Regional comparison of the Cianowice 2 borehole with borehole Parkoszowice 58 BN, located some 40 km to NW tends to suggest the Early Jurassic (most probably Pliensbachian–Toarcian) age of the profile (the lowermost coarse-grained part can be of a Triassic age), but until more reliable biostratigraphical or chemostratigraphical evidences are obtained, these more detailed interpretations of stratigraphical division remain tentative.
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Two different kinds of rounded structures (spherical and ellipsoid ones), filled by calayey-ferruginous sediment, occur in the fine-grained sandstone of a crevasse splay origin (meandering river environment) in the Early Hettangian Zagaje Formation, in the locality called Sołtyków, nearby little town of Odrowąż, central Poland. The structures are interpreted as dinosaur eggs, precisely as the 'post-egg structures'. They are strongly altered by diagenetic processes and no obvious eggshell structure is preserved. However, faint embryo remains found inside one of the ellipsoid structures and characteristic circular clutch of the spherical structures, allows conclusion that the structures represent dinosaur eggs. This conclusion is supported by other evidences, such as regular size and shape of the structures and joint occurrence with numerous dinosaur footprints. While the circular clutch laid in a shallow depression represents an in situ nest, the smaller, ellipsoid eggs were probably transported a short distance by the current associated with a flood event. The circular clutch of unhatched egg structures most probably represents a nest of earliest sauropods; their footprints and trackways have been found nearby. The smaller ellipsoid egg structures are difficult to classify, they may represent either basal ornitishian or theropod eggs. This is the first find of dinosaur egg structures in Poland and the second known Lower Jurassic dinosaur nesting ground world-wide. It may also stimulate discussion on diagenetically altered dinosaur eggs.
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W dolnoliasowym (dolny hettang) odsłonięciu Sołtyków koło Odrowąża (województwo świętokrzyskie) znaleziono sferyczne i elipsoidalne struktury, które zostały zinterpretowane jako struktury powstałe w miejsce jaj dinozaurów. Jaja zostały pierwotnie złożone w piaszczystej ławicy reprezentującej glif krewasowy, w obrębie równi zalewowej rzeki meandrującej. Zostały one silnie zmienione przez procesy diagenetyczne i nie zachowała się pierwotna ultrastruktura skorupek. Badania wnętrza jednej ze struktur struktur ujawniły niewielkie, ciemne, spłaszczone, cylindryczne struktury. Pod mikroskopem elektronowym ukazują one włóknisto-lamelarną budowę zbliżoną do budowy kości lub zwapniałej chrząstki embrionalnych dinozaurów. Inną ważną przesłanką jest ułożenie większych, sferycznych struktur w postaci pierścienia charakterystycznego dla wylęgu zauropodów. Dodatkowymi przesłankami jest regularna wielkość i kształt znalezionych struktur. Pierścieniowy wyląg jest gniazdem zauropodów zachowanym in situ. W pobliżu gniazda znaleziono tropy zauropodów. Interpretacja wydłużonych struktur jest trudniejsza, mogą one reprezentować zarówno jaja wczesnych dinozaurów w ptasiomiednicznych, jak i drapieżnych teropoidów. Obie grupy dinozaurów pozostawiły liczne ślady stóp w pobliżu stanowiska z jajami. Jaja elipsoidalne zostały przeniesione przez prąd wodny związany z powodzią i złożone na wtórnym złożu w pobliżu kulistych jaj zauropodów. Osady tej samej i następnych powodzi przykryły jaja, które obumarły i nie uległy wykluciu. Po rozkładzie ich miękkich części i wypełnieniu wnętrza osadem mulistym na drodze infiltracji, procesy diagenetyczne doprowadziły najpierw do lokalnej sylifikacji wewnątrz struktur, a potem do stopniowego rozpuszczenia skorupek oraz ich podstawienia infiltrującymi minerałami ilastymi. Po etapie głębszego pogrzebania struktur nastąpił proces syderytyzacji. Stosunkowo niedawno, w trzeciorzędzie, syderyt utlenił się do wodorotlenków i tlenków żelaza. Znalezisko to jest pierwszym odkryciem struktur jajowych dinozaurów w Polsce i drugim odkryciem tych struktur na świecie w utworach dolnojurajskich. Niniejszy artykuł może się przyczynić do podjęcia dyskusji na temat silnie zmienionych jaj i kryteriów, jakie powinny kierować interpretacją i oznaczaniem struktur jajowych dinozaurów. Zupełnie odrębnym problemem jest ochrona tego unikatowego stanowiska, które jest niszczone przez przygodnych poszukiwaczy gagatu. W tym celu konieczne jest skuteczniejsze egzekwowanie obowiązującego prawa, a także jak najszybsze zabezpieczenie i opracowanie najcenniejszego materiału naukowego znajdującego się w odsłonięciu.
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Tragophylloceras cf. loscombi (Sowerby) has been found in the Kaszewy 1 borehole (central Poland), in the Upper Pliensbachian strata (Margaritatus Zone, Subnodosus Subzone), assigned to the Drzewica Formation. Hitherto, all ammonite finds in the epicontinental Lower Jurassic in Poland have been restricted to Western Pomerania (NW Poland). This find points to a wider extent of the transgressive event occurring in the late Margaritatus Zone, following widespread regression at the beginning of this zone. Rapid and pronounced sea level changes in the early Late Pliensbachian confirms the hypothesis linking these changes with glacioeustasy.
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Sedimentological analysis of the Early Jurassic Höör Sandstone in Central Scania, Sweden shows that two units representing different lithofacies may be distinguished. The lower Stanstorp Member is characterised by texturally and mineralogically heterogeneous sediments. Mature arenites and immature quartz and subarkosic wackes form two clearly separated groups, interpreted as fluvial channel and alluvial plain deposits respectively. The fluvial character of this member is supported by a dominance of unidirectionally oriented trough sets, abundant plant detritus, the presence of plant roots and palaeosols and a lack of marine body fossils and trace fossils. An intercalated composite polymict conglomerate layer is interpreted as the result of an extraordinary flood. The overlying Vittseröd Member is characterised by mature quartz arenites and large-scale tabular sets with multidirectional orientations. The Vittseröd Member arenites are of storm- and possibly tide-dominated shoreface origin. Bidirectional wave and tide-induced longshore currents and unidirectional onshore migration of sand ridges were the chief depositional processes. Longshore currents towards the NNW prevailed. Upper flow regime features, and erosion and reworking of sediments are attributed to the storm-induced rip currents. Lithofacies characteristics are used to define the following lithostratigraphical units: the Stanstorp and the Vittseröd members, as well as the Höör Sandstone (Fm) above. Lithofacies and palaeoenvironmental characteristics of the Vittseröd Member and their comparison with the facies of the Helsingborg and Döshult members in Western Scania suggest a Sinemurian age for the Vittseröd Member.
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Content available remote Rhaetian/Hettangian boundary in Pomerania, Poland
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Two boreholes from Pomerania, Western Poland (Kamień Pomorski IG-1 and Mechowo IG-1) yielded core material from the Triassic/Jurassic transition in continental deposits. In Mechowo IG-1 the Rhaetian/Hettangian boundary occurs within thick sandstone succession of fluvial origin and this boundary is determined based on occurrence of megaspores (Trileites pinguis and Nathorstisporites hopliticus assemblages - Marcinkiewicz 1971). In Kamień Pomorski (25 km to NW, depth 665.5-678.2 m), the grain size of sediments is significantly finer. Also, a minor marine ingression with dinoflagellate cysts can be noted (this ingression can be tentatively correlated with the "Contorta beds", known from Germany and Scandinavia). Uppermost Rhaetian deposits represent alluvial overbank subsystems, floodplain, lacustrine and crevasse splay facies dominate. This indicates a substantial limitation of depositional energy of the alluvial palaeoenvironment, which reflects both palaeoslope (Mechowo was closer to the sedimentary source area situated to the East) and probably local tectonic factor. Consequently, erosion at the Rhaetian/Hettangian boundary (sequence boundary) is inconspicuous if any, which is an exceptional case in the Early Jurassic Polish Basin, where usually Rhaetian deposits are missing or reduced from the top by erosion. Material from Kamień Pomorski IG-1 borehole gives much more abundant palynological data. In the uppermost Rhaetian, the following miospores are most characteristic: spores Semiretisporites gothae (restricted only to the Late Triassic), accompanied by Limbosporites lundblandi Nilsson, Baculatisporites wellmanii (Couper) Krutzsch, Cingulizonathes rhaeticus (Reinhardt) Schulz, Conbaculatisporites mesozoicus Klaus, Deltoidospora toralis (Leschik) Lund, Densosporites fissus (Reinhardt) Schulz, Lycopodiacidites rugulatus (Couper) Schulz, pollens Alisporites radialis (Leschik) Lund, Cuneatisporites cf. radialis Pautsch, Ovalipolis ovalis Krutzsch. This is a typical Rhaetian miospore assemblage. Interestingly, the uppermost Rhaetian deposits show a characteristic palynofacies turnover with a conspicuous "fern peak" (huge number and domination of fern-derived spores). This may point to the environmental/climatic change at the Rhaetian/Hettangian boundary and concomitant biotic crisis. The lowermost Hettangian assemblage comprises (among others): spores Contignisporites problematicus (Couper) Playford & Dettmann, Conbaculatisporites mesozoicus (Madler) Lund, Concavisporites toralis (Leschik) Nilsson, Cosmosporites elegans Nilsson, Zebrasporites interscriptus (Thiergart) Klaus, Lycopodiumsporites semimuris Danze-Corsin & Laveine and pollens Pinuspollenites minimus (Couper) Kemp. These preliminary studies are encouraging and the Kamień Pomorski profile can add to the European record of continental Rhaetian/Hettangian boundary. Furter palynological and isotope studies are planned in this section.
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Early diagenetic concretionary flint nodules from the Upper Oxfordian oolitic and micritic limestones represent silicified crustacean burrows. Their occurence is confined to very shallow carbonate facies of barrier, lagoonal, and tidal flat origin. Fills of crustacean burrows commonly provided a nucleation centre for flint formation and thereby the template on which flint nodule beds were constructed. The reason for the special relationship between flint and crustacean burrows probably lie in the original texture (high permeability) of the burrow networks and also in the organic content (including the microbial assemblages) lowering the pH. Nodule horizons are developed more or less parallel to bedding, to form several widespread horizons of the regional correlative significance.
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Omówiono projekt i realizację komputerowej aplikacji służącej do wyznaczenia zużycia energii w procesach produkcyjnych wykorzystujących obróbkę skrawaniem. Metoda zastosowana pozwala na określenie korzystniejszych pod względem energetycznym, a wobec coraz większego udziału kosztu energii w koszcie wytworzenia produktu, także pod względem ekonomicznym, wariantów procesu produkcyjnego.
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A design and implementation of the computer application for energy consumption calculation in machining processes arę di-scussed in the paper. The method allows one to choose morę su-itable, as far as energy consumption is concerried, variants of the process. These yariants arę also economically morę suitable due to still increasing costs of energy used for the production.
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Middle Hettangian (Early Jurassic) deltaic deposits of the Skłoby Formation exposed at Podole near Opatów (eastern part of the Holy Cross Mts. area, Central Poland) revealed new specimens of dinosaur tracks. Four ichnospecies: Anchisauripus sp., Kayentapus sp., Parabrontopodus sp., and cf. Anomoepus sp.were identified. The new finds suggest that the deltaic (delta-plain) association of dinosaurs is characterised by dominance of low-browsing thyreophorans accompanied by juvenile sauropods and medium- to large sized theropods.
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Upper Hettangian (Lower Jurassic) marginal-marine Przysucha Ore-bearing Formation exposed at Zapniów mine and clay-pit (northwestern part of the Holy Cross Mountains area, central Poland) revealed an interesting assemblage of dinosaur tracks. Although mostly yielding poorly preserved and isolated tracks probably left in shallow water conditions, the site nevertheless indicates a diversity of early saurischian (theropods and sauropodomorphs) and ornithischian (thyreophorans) dinosaur trackmakers. This new assemblage is partly consistent with the Lower-Middle Hettangian ichnorecord from the same region. The tracks are preserved in sediments of a barrier-foreshore origin within a barrier/lagoonal depositional system, belonging to the highstand systems tract, located below a marked erosional surface (sequence boundary), which is associated with a substantial fall in sea level at the end of Hettangian times. Here we described all previously and newly collected or observed in the field dinosaur tracks from both surface and underground exposures at Zapniów. Four ichnospecies: Grallator isp., Anchisauripus isp., cf. Tetrasauropus isp., and cf. Anomoepus isp. were identified. The theropod and ornithischian tracks show distinct similarities to those described from the richest in this region and most famous Gliniany Las dinosaur track assemblage, in age approximately coeval to Zapniów. Two sizes of theropod tracks (small and medium) indicate the presence of two different size classes or species of predators in this area. The described cf. Tetrasauropus isp. from Zapniów is the first unquestioned evidence of basal sauropodomorphs in the Upper Hettangian of the Holy Cross Mountains and first record of this ichnotaxa in the Lower Jurassic of Poland. Additionally, two theropod trackways (Anchisauripus isp.) show evidence for trotting. The new finds suggest similarities between marginal-marine environments (delta-plain and foreshore-barrier/lagoon lithofacies) association of dinosaurs containing low-browsing thyreophorans accompanied by small or juvenile sauropodomorphs and small to medium sized theropods. Presence of the ornithischian footprints suggests their prominent role as a major component in Middle-Upper Hettangian dinosaur faunas in marginal-marine environments dominating in the region.
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Content available Shale gas in China : how much and when?
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China is ranked as the world’s largest resource-holder of unconventional gas (estimated at about 25–31 trillion cubic meters – tcm), and current production is 1.3 billion cubic meters (bcm). Also other unconventional resources(tight gas, CBM) are large in global standards. There are strong energy security reasons in China – a long run strategy for China is to reduce its dependency on imported gas resources, thus the growth of domestic output of unconventional gas production (coal bed methane, tight and in particular shale gas) has been recognized as very important both by the government, giving significant impetus to the development of shale gas extraction. However, significant uncertainties remain about the extent to which this resource will be developed as aspects of China’s geology and the structure of the gas sector (in terms of pricing as well as access to water and pipelines) and population density, possess significant problems. A key role in Chinese unconventional hydrocarbons exploration is played by large Chinese national oil companies. The most productive shales are Lower Paleozoic marine strata in South China, in particular the organic-rich Lower Silurian Longmaxi Formation in the upper Yangtze region, characterized also by wide distribution, large thickness and generally fairly good other properties. Both subsurface geological and surface conditions of major shale gas plays in China are more complex than those in USA. Concerning geology, many shale gas plays in China are faulted and sometimes cross-cut by tectonically active zones – however, in some best productive zones tectonics improves conductivity of reservoirs. Number of Chinese shale plays (particularly those of lacustrine origin, representing a large share of Chinese resources) contain clay rich formations, which impairs effectiveness of hydraulic fracturing. Concerning environmental issues, China decided to go for a practice-oriented approach and no specific regulations for unconventional hydrocarbons currently exist in China, only some – pre-during and – post-operation recommendations are discussed. Interestingly, in many aspects unconventional hydrocarbon exploration in China show more similarities to the situation in Poland than to USA and bilateral cooperation may be fruitful for both sides.
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Almost all dinosaur tracks in Poland come from three lowermost formations of the Lower Jurassic in the Holy Cross Mountains: Zagaje Formation, Skłoby Formation and Przysucha Ore-Bearing Formation. Floristic remains and sequence stratigraphy correlation indicate the Hettangian age of all three formations. They represent various continental and marginal-marine environments. Fluvial and lacustrine sediments dominate in the continental Zagaje Formation, while the nearshore and deltaic facies are dominant in the two overlying formations. Various ornithischian, sauropod and theropod tracks occur in these sediments. Parallel sauropod trackways reported herein are the earliest record of sauropod gregarious behavior. Moreover, the present paper summarises and systematises the whole existing material, addressing the ichnosystematic and preservational aspects. Dinosaur tracks assemblages are assigned to three parts of the lithostratigraphical succession in which they occur and are discussed against their palaeoenvironmental background. Two general assemblages are distinguished: lower Zagaje assemblage of an inland, humid habitat with both low- and high-growing vegetation, dominated by high browsing herbivores (sauropod trackmakers of Parabrontopodus) and medium- to large-sized predators (theropod trackmakers of Anchisauripus and Kayentapus), and upper Zagaje-Skłoby-Przysucha assemblage, representing deltaic plain-shoreline habitats with low, dense vegetation, dominated by low browsing herbivores (ornithischian trackmakers of Anomoepus and Moyenisauropus), associated by small- to medium-sized predators (theropod trackmakers of Grallator and Anchisauripus). Dinosaur ichnofauna from Poland rather poorly reflects biostratigraphical vertebrate faunal change in Early Jurassic time, but it does reflect environmental and biogeographical differences quite well. The discussed data imply also a high dinosaur phylogenetical diversity as early as in the Hettangian age.
PL
Ślady dinozaurów w Polsce są do tej pory znane tylko z Gór Świętokrzyskich. Inne odsłonięcia utworów lądowych wczesnej jury (pliensbachu i późnego toarku) w innym obszarze ich występowania na powierzchni (jura Krakowsko-Wieluńska) mogą tez zawierać ślady dinozaurów, ale dotychczas nie zostały one znalezione, co jest przede wszystkim związane z fragmentarycznością i złym stanem tych odsłonięć. Niemal wszystkie ślady dinozaurów znane z północnego obrzeżenia Gór Świętokrzyskich pochodzą z trzech najniższych formacji: zagajskiej, skłobskiej i przysuskiej rudonośnej reprezentujących hettang. Taki wiek tych osadów wynika z danych makro- i mikroflorystycznych oraz z korelacji opartej na stratygrafii sekwencyjnej. Pojedyncze ślady znaleziono też w najniższej, lądowej części formacji ostrowieckiej (również najprawdopodobniej reprezentującej najpóźniejszy hettang)oraz w utworach lądowych późnego toarku w okolicach Opoczna (jeden bardzo dobrze zachowany ślad teropoda). Formacja zagajska, skłobska i przysuska rudonośna reprezentują różnorodne środowiska kontynentalne i marginalnomorskie. W najniższej formacji, zagajskiej występują utwory związane ze środowiskiem lądowym, rzecznym i jeziorno-bagiennym, w samym stropie mogącym reprezentować już środowisko równi deltowej, związanej ze zbliżającą się transgresją. Z tansgresją wczesnego hettangu związana jest nadległa formacja skłobska, w której dominują środowiska przybrzeżne, na peryferiach basenu deltowe. Następna, przysuska formacja rudonośna ma względem formacji skłobskiej charakter regresywny, dominują w niej osady płytkich, rozległych zatok lagun rozdzielone piaszczystymi osadami delt, barier i rzek. Kulminacją agresji jest regionalna powierzchnia erozyjna w jej stropie, nad którą występuje pakiet fluwialny zaliczany do formacji ostrowieckiej. W utworach tych występują zróżnicowane ślady wczesnych dinozaurów ptasiomiednicznych, auropodów i teropodów, które opisano z poszczególnych odcinków profilu utworów hettangu. Z utworów najwcześniejszego hettangu (dolna część formacji zagajskiej z odsłonięcia w Sołtykowie, pochodzi unikatowa powierzchnia z tropami dorosłych i młodych zauropodów. Jest to najstarszy znany dowód stadnego życia tych dinozaurów. Oszacowano wzajemne kierunki i prędkość: poruszania się zwierząt, a także wiek młodych osobników ( 1-2 lata). Konieczne było też usystematyzowanie i podsumowanie wszystkich dotychczas zebranych danych pod względem ichnotaksonomicznym. Zebrany i opracowany materiał ichnologiczny pozwolił też na wyodrębnienie dwóch zasadniczych zespołów śladów. Pierwszy zespół, charakterystyczny dla dolnej części formacji zagajskiej, jest związany z typowo lądowym środowiskiem równi rzecznych, porośniętych zarówno nisko-, jak i wysokopienną roślinnością. Dominują w nim twórcy śladów - Parabrontopodus (zauropody), wyspecjalizowani w żerowaniu na wysokopiennej, drzewiastej roślinności, oraz średnie i duże drapieżniki, teropody, twórcy śladów-Anchisauripus i Kayenrapus. Drugi zespół, typowy dla najwyższej części formacji zagajskiej, formacji skłobskiej i przysuskiej formacji rudonośnej, jest związany ze środowiskami równi deltowych i przybrzeżnych porośniętych gęstą, niskopienną roślinnością. Dominują w nim twórcy śladów - Anomoepus i Moyenisauropus, a więc dinozaury ptasiomiedniczne wyspecjalizowane w żerowaniu na niskopiennej roślinności, wraz z małymi lub średnimi drapieżnymi teropodami - twórcami śladów - Grallator i Anchisauripus. Obecność śladów niewielkich (karłowatych lub młodych) zauropodów w tym drugim zespole nie zakłóca całego podziału - mogły sie w nim pojawiać również małe zauropody, gdyż ich pożywieniem mogła być z powodzeniem roślinność niskopienna. Omawiane tropy dobrze odzwierciedlają zwiazek ze środowiskiem i czynnikami paleobiogeograficznymi. Uzyskane wyniki wyraźnie wskazują też na silne zróżnicowanie filogenetyczna dinozaurów w najwcześniejszej jurze, a także na to, że już w tym czasie stanowiły one dobrze wykształcone zespoły, determinowane przez czynniki ekologiczne.
EN
Invertebrate trace fossil assemblages from the Hettangian (Early Jurassic) alluvial plain deposits of Sołtyków (Holy Cross Mts, Poland) represent three terrestrial ichnofacies: the Mermia ichnofacies (entirely aquatic), Scoyenia ichnofacies, and Coprinisphaera ichnofacies. They span environments from shallow lacustrine to different subaerial fluvial environments. Bivalve burrows and traces, oligochaetae, insect and crayfishes burrows, plant roots, vertebrate tracks and other types of trace fossils record information on biodiversity and palaeoecological conditions. The Sołtykow ichnoassemblages confirm that terrestrial ichnocoenoses were quite diversified, chiefly a result of a changing water table and food availability. Diversity of trace fossils was supported by the strongly mosaic character of local environments. Bivalve burrows are very diversified, and several ichnogenera have been distinguished. Trace fossil producers as well as functional, taphonomic and preservational aspects of ichnofossils are discussed. The following ichnotaxa have been recognized: Lockeia siliquaria James, 1879; L. amygdaloides (Seilacher, 1953); L. czarnockii (Karaszewski, 1974); Scalichnus isp.; Scoyenia isp.; Spongeliomorpha isp.; Spongeliomorpha carlsbergi (Bromley and Asgaard, 1979); Cruziana problematica (Schindewolf, 1921); cf. Cruziana isp.; Rusophycus isp.; Diplichnites isp.; cf. Kouphichnium sp.; Planolites isp.; Palaeophycus isp.; Cochlichnus isp.; cf. Helminthoidichnites isp.; cf. Xylonichnus isp., and Linckichnus terebrans Schlirf, 2006. Various structures attributed to arthropod burrows (vertical to subvertical tunnels), chambered insect nests of Pallichnidae affinity or other nests with septa, earthworm burrows as well as enigmatic radial chambers, likely made by crayfishes, are illustrated. The new bivalve dwelling ichnotaxon Calceoformites uchmani igen. et isp. n. is described.
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