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Krajobraz architektoniczny ziem Polski

100%

KUNKEL R.

Ochrona Zabytków

2017

nr Dodatek Specjalny. Dziedzictwo w Polsce.

27-40

In centuries past, political dependence on territories which lie within Poland’s present-day borders changed numerous times. They became the source and destination of numerous migrations, making them a treasure trove of heritage left by a variety of cultures. Situated in Central Europe, at the crossroads of influences emerging from both eastern and western Christianity, with a significant presence of Jews, caused that in such a diverse society the religious differences have developed particular cultural mosaic, still clearly visible in its architectural and urban heritage which has survived in spite of numerous armed conflicts. The remarkable complex of neolithic flint mines in the Świętokrzyskie Mountains region was constructed around the mid-2000 BC (the period when agribreeding evolved). The flint is recognizable in Europe thanks to its gray, striped variety. In the 8th century BC, early in the Iron Age, a defensive settlement composed of over 100 houses surrounded by an embankment was erected on a lake island at Biskupin. Because of its marshy soil, timber used to form its construction has survived in the lower parts to this day. The most common villages of the Roman period consisted of loosely scattered farmsteads. A fortified settlement surrounded by a wood and earth rampart was usually set up in the vicinity to provide shelter from threats. Many of them have survived to this day as flat, round mounts. The establishment of a strong central power and the adoption of Christianity in 966 resulted in the first monumental structures, built in the main fortified settlements, protected by massive, over ten meter high timber and earth embankments. Strong connections with the Empire of the Ottonian dynasty, their western neighbour, made the Romanesque structures of Saxony the model for local stone cathedrals and princely abodes, most of which have only survived as archaeological relics. Exceptions to this are the rotunda of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Kraków, and the chapel in the monarch’s mansion on the lake Lednica isle – both have survived, albeit in ruin. The number of stone Romanesque churches increased rapidly in the late 11th and 12th centuries. Neither their scale nor construction technology deviate from those in other countries of Central Europe, that is Bohemia and Hungary. The basic architectural solutions tended to be drawn from Rhineland and northern Italy. The monumental stone basilicas that have survived in good condition include the collegiate churches of Tum (near Łęczyca), Kruszwica and Opatów, a monastic church in Strzelno, the small collegiate Church of St. Andrew in Kraków, as well as a handful of smaller churches founded by bishops and mighty territorial lords. The Cistercians, a monastic order promoted by dukes and bishops, arrived in Poland in the late 12th century. Four of their oldest preserved monasteries, built of stone blocks, were erected in the Małopolska region and represent fine architecture derived from the Order’s headquarters in Burgundy. Their structure already bears features of the early Gothic skeleton, while the detail still follows the Romanesque aesthetics. Meanwhile, the brick architecture of the mature Gothic is represented in the Pomerania region by three grand Cistercian monasteries in Pelplin, Oliwa, and Kołbacz. Although brick was already used for the construction of arches and vaults in the Mazovia region of the mid-12th century, it only gained wider popularity in the following century. Among ever more numerous projects, especially in parish churches and monasteries of mendicant orders, the Dominican Church in Sandomierz should be mentioned due to the exceptional quality of its ceramic decorations. In the mid-12th century, Poland entered a period of feudal fragmentation, characteristic of European states of that time. The independent, albeit related, dukes and princes governing individual provinces generally lacked the funds to start major investments. Silesia was the only exception, with its Collegiate in Trzebnica, later acquired by Cistercian nuns, and the early Gothic brick choir at the Wrocław cathedral (1244). In parallel, large parish churches were being built in the newly chartered cities, and so were the simple, small but numerous local parish churches in villages, and ducal and knightly residential and defensive castles and towers. Come the 14th century, the Romanesque cathedrals of Kraków, Gniezno, and Poznań were replaced by new Gothic basilicas. In the Kraków cathedral, flatbacked in the Cistercian manner rather than with a polygonal pattern of radiating chapels in the apse, as was the case in the other two cathedrals, the vaulting over the final bay of the presbytery resting on five supports was erected (ca. 1320). This was the starting point for the development of the stellar vaulting scheme that would become popular throughout Małopolska, Silesia, and Pomerania regions of the 14th century. In the post-classic Gothic era in the south of Poland, besides the grand parish and monastic churches in Kraków and Wrocław, and the capitals of the Silesian duchies of Świdnica and Brzeg, a group of twoaisle hall churches funded by King Casimir the Great in the Małopolska region (third quarter of the 14th century) should receive special mention. The reduction of the baldachim-like bay divisions of early and classic Gothic led to the emergence of compact, soaring interiors and structures, which frequently combined ceramic brick material with stone detail. The many castles that served not only to defend the country, but also to house continually expanding administrative network, were set up by King Casimir, along with Silesian dukes, bishops, and lords. The establishment of new cities gained momentum in the 14th century, and was not limited to ecclesiastical architecture, as it also provided numerous public buildings, notably town halls and market halls, as well as town fortifications. Most cities demolished their fortifications in the 19th century, once they had finally lost their defensive value. The gates, however, were often retained as particular landmarks. To protect the northern part of the Mazovia region from attacks of the still-pagan Prussian and Lithuanian tribes, Konrad the Duke of Mazovia invited the military Order of Teutonic Knights in 1226. It only took the Teutonic knights a few decades to subjugate territories which reached as far as the Baltic Sea, covering it with an efficient administrative structure, as well as attracting plenty of settlers, mostly from Germany and Flanders. The cities developing along the lower course of the Vistula River, especially Toruń and Gdańsk, were soon predominantly built of masonry, and seats of the new bishops’ metropolities – Chełmża, Kwidzyń, and Frombork – had mighty Gothic brick cathedrals and castles owned by chapters. The administration of the Order was concentrated in regular brick castles of the vogts and procurators, typically built on the plan of a square, with an internal arcaded courtyard, combining the functions of a monastery with elements of a castle. The largest architectural complex erected by the Order was Malbork Castle, the Order’s capital, composed of a monastery, the residence of the Grand Master, castle boroughs, and the nearby city, all surrounded by a complex system of fortifications. Governed by bishops and chapters or prelates, the Warmia region developed a unique, rectangular plan type three-aisled hall, known as a warmińska, with examples in Dobre Miasto and Olsztyn. Increasing in wealth, the cities of Western Pomerania region built their parish churches the size of cathedrals. Some even applied solutions appropriate to cathedrals, such as the ambulatory and triforia. Worthy of attention is the activity of the Szczecin-based workshop of Henryk Brunsberg, the constructor of a number of churches combining the Central European hall plan with an ambulatory and internal buttressing, adorned with lavish ceramic detail. Late-Gothic architecture certainly became most prominent in the coastal metropolis of Gdańsk, where churches erected on a grand scale towered over rows of burgher’s townhouses. The churches made use of elaborate network and crystal vaulting. The most prominent structures in the city, are the Town Hall of the Main City and the late-Gothic utility buildings: Artus Court, the Court of the Brotherhood of St. George, and a number of city gates, notably the two-towered Żuraw which also housed a lifting crane. The standards of art used in Gdańsk, especially the vaulting and the brick detail, were also adopted by the neighbouring regions of Prussia, Mazovia, and western Lithuania, although on a much reduced scale. The increasing danger of Turkish invasions of the late 15th century made the cities of Silesia and the Małopolska region modify their fortifications, adjust them for the use of firearms, while the ecclesiastical masonry architecture of 15th century the Małopolska region reuses, but in a reduced form, solutions from the previous century. A fair number of wooden churches from the period have also survived to this day, whose the prominent example is perfectly preserved, along with their internal furnishing and paintings, village church in Dębno Podhalańskie. Once the throne in Kraków was assumed by the Lithuanian dynasty of the Jagiellons, their architecture initially followed that of Casimir the Great, adding only Byzantine-style painting decoration. The connection of post-classic Gothic with frescoes hailing from Eastern Christianity (the presbytery of collegiate churches in Wiślica and Sandomierz, the Chapel of the Holy Trinity in Wawel Cathedral) is perhaps unique in Europe. Nonetheless, early on in the 16th century successive monarchs from the dynasty reached, especially through their Habsburg spouses, for the models of “Roman” imperial and papal art, initially through Hungary and later directly from Tuscany. As a result, besides Hungary Poland was the only country of trans-Alpine Europe to take over the Renaissance in its original, pure Florentine-Roman edition. Eminent examples of the use of the style include the rebuilding of Wawel Royal Castle, and especially the domed sepulchral Chapel of the Jagiellonian dynasty in the Kraków Cathedral, and the Cathedral Basilica in Płock. By the end of the 16th century, the style of the late Renaissance (Mannerism), fashionable since around the middle of the century (ducal castle in Brzeg, town hall in Poznań), had generally established itself across southern Poland, as demonstrated by both magnate residential complexes (Baranów Sandomierski) and burgher’s townhouses (Kazimierz Dolny). A special role was played by the architectural studio of Santi Gucci from Florence operating in Pińczów. Gucci designed, among other buildings, the Myszkowski family residence in Książ Wielki (1585), which may be the oldest axial residence of the “between courtyard and garden” type in Poland. Cities of this period were surrounded with roundel and bastion fortifications, usually complementing former defensive walls. Commanding special attention among these is the embodiment of the Renaissance concept of an ideal city, designed by a North Italian architect Bernardo Morando in Zamość, a city including the residence established from scratch for Chancellor Jan Zamoyski. Mannerism showed a different face in the Pomerania region, especially in Gdańsk in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, where public utility buildings such as the Grand Arsenal and the Town Hall of the Old City were constructed, among a plethora of burgher’s townhouses, drawing their forms from Flemish and French architecture of the time. At the same time early Baroque arrived in Poland, mostly thanks to the kings of the Vasa dynasty and the Jesuit Order. Many of the plentiful ecclesiastical foundations of counter-Reformation were built for the Camaldolese and Carmelite orders. It was also the time of development of palazzo in fortezza type residences (Krzyżtopór, Wiśnicz). Monasteries, notably Jasna Góra in Częstochowa, were also fortified. In 1569, the parliaments of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, two states that had previously been connected only by the person of the king, set up a union, thus developing a parliamentary monarchy known as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Beginning in 1569, the Mazovian city of Warsaw became the main residence of the king and the venue of sessions of the joint parliament, which resulted in building there numerous palaces for noble families. In the middle of the 17th century, the wars in the east of the Commonwealth and the “Swedish Deluge” brought major devastation to the country, followed by many years of stagnation in investment. In the second half of the century, temples modelled on the church Il Gesu in Rome featured raised side chapels that gave their interiors, so typical of the Baroque, a theatrical quality. One of most eminent representatives of mature, classicising Baroque in Central Europe was Tylman of Gameren, who was working in Poland in the last quarter of the 17th century. His main works include the “between courtyard and garden” residences in Wilanów and Nieborów, Krasiński Palace in Warsaw, and the centrally planned churches of Warsaw’s New Town and Czerniaków. Beginning with the early 18th century, after the end of the Thirty-Years War, the Baroque arrived in Silesia region, at the time already part of the Habsburg Empire. Initially, it was employed for monastic and residential developments of fairly modest architecture, yet grand in scale. In the 1720s, the style adopted concave-convex façades of the Borromini type and the elliptical-domed richly decorated interiors in the huge churches of the revived Cistercian and Benedictine orders. After the Peace of Westphalia, the Protestant churches built by the rich cities of Silesia region, albeit limited by the Catholic emperors to being made of wood, reached previously unheard of sizes thanks to sophisticated engineering construction techniques, and boasted lavish internal decoration (Churches of Peace in Jawor and Świdnica). In a similar manner, churches on elliptical plan derived from the realm of the Prague workshop of the Dientzenhofers (Legnickie Pole) were also built in Silesia region. With certain stylistic simplifications, further examples were also built in the region of Lublin by the architect Paolo Fontana. Leading among the palace-and-garden complexes was the Warsaw residence of the Saxon Dynasty, which axis lies across the natural line of the city’s development. There was more freedom in the establishment of park axes at magnate residences situated in the provinces, such as in Białystok and Radzyń in Podlasie region, sometimes emulated by monasteries (Siemiatycze) and pilgrimage centres (Święta Lipka). That was the time of numerous wooden, and less frequently masonry, single-storey country manor houses built by petty and moderately wealthy nobility. With time, they would become the symbol of the typical home of Polish landed gentry which survives to this day. Despite the complex political circumstances, the patronage of the last king of Poland, Stanislaus Augustus, brought about consummate interiors of the Royal Castle, and of the monarch’s private residence, the palace and garden complex of Łazienki in Warsaw. Following the king’s preferences, aristocrats and landed gentry also began developing their plentiful country residences in the convention of Palladio’s and French classicism. At the time, the replacement of wood with masonry in churches continued, financed by rural parishes, a process enhanced by the increasing wealth of the landed gentry and peasants. In the last quarter of the 18th century, the territory of the Commonwealth was taken over in stages by neighbouring powers: Russia, Prussia and Austria. Despite a number of national uprisings, Poland did not regain its sovereign statehood until after the World War I, although throughout the 19th century Polish territories retained their architectural cultural distinctiveness, especially in residential construction and Catholic churches. Numerous structures serving culture (theatres, schools), administration (town halls) and transport infrastructure, including coaching stations, toll houses, inns, and later also railway stations, were built from the beginning of the century. They were built in neoclassical style, and following different stylistic transformations, they received historic forms. In opposition, if not a challenge, to the structures built by government, private villas and residences as well as Catholic churches frequently used various standards drawn from history. Tenement houses lining the streets of the developing cities followed the standard of Central European historicism, sometimes applying fashionable Art Noveau details in the 19th/20th century. The location of Poland on the border of three empires resulted in the construction of major complexes of fortifications. The fortresses of Srebrna Góra and Kłodzko were built in the 3rd quarter of the 18th century in the Silesia region. Most of the brick and earth Russian bastion fortresses in Warsaw, Modlin and Dęblin, and the Prussian fortress in Masuria (Boyen fortress in Giżycko) date back to around the mid-19th century. Begun while the Napoleonic wars were still going on, they provide an example of contemporary state-of-the-art solutions in fortification. The 19th century brought about the development of industry, with the ores of metals and hard coal mining industry in Upper Silesia region, and textile industry developing in Łódź, being worthy of special note. Its remnants are the large-sized buildings of production halls and technical facilities, complexes of worker settlements composed of typical single-family houses, and villas for the owners, management and members of the board, many of which feature rich historic style decor. Major destruction came in the wake of the World War I, not only directly connected to military activity but also to the consciously applied “scorched earth” policy. This was especially true of the withdrawing Russian armies, leading to the ruin of town and village developments, and the removal of entire industrial and technical infrastructure from cities. After gaining independence by Poland, and the final confirmation of its state borders, the two decades (1918-1939) resulted in the construction of governmental buildings and banks, necessary for modern administration in Warsaw and other large cities. They were built in the monumental modernist style, although a return to the historicising “national” styles was eagerly embraced in the case of school buildings and railway stations. Other projects included housing estates and major urban developments, among them the construction of the new city and port of Gdynia, the Warsaw district of Żoliborz (based on the “garden city” concept), and the radically socialising worker settlement in Koło (Warsaw). Beginning in the late 1920s, the avant-garde yielded to the visible influence of Le Corbusier’s architecture. Projects from the 1930s represent high-quality functionalism and academic constructivism connected with the architects of the so-called Warsaw School. This was a time of interesting construction solutions, e.g. the Prudential skyscraper in Warsaw and the Bridge on the River Słudwia in Maurzyce (1928), which was the world’s first fully welded road bridge. In the wake of the World War II, Polish people from the eastern territories taken up by the Soviet Union in 1945 were resettled on lands abandoned by retreating Germans, which represent today’s western Poland. Some local Protestant churches were taken over by the Catholic Church, while others, bereft of care, remained in neglect. After the extermination of the Jewish people by the Nazi Germans, meant few synagogues and houses of prayer remained. After the forced collectivisation of the countryside, the numerous manor houses of the landed gentry fell into ruin, unless they were developed into schools, kindergartens, and health centres. Reconstruction of cities after their wartime destruction began in places such as Warsaw, Gdańsk, and Wrocław, with special attention being given to their historical centres. Offices and complexes of public buildings of the period of socialist realism were developed in parallel, like the Marszałkowska’s Housing Estates (MDM) in Warsaw and the city of Nowa Huta (Kraków). A socialist realist skyscraper – the Palace of Culture and Science, a spitting image of similar structures in Moscow and Saint Petersburg, was erected in the centre of Warsaw. After the fall of Stalinism, in a country where the state remained practically the only investor until the 1980s, the need for intensification of residential housing construction resulted in the mass development of cities with uniform blocks of flats offering banal architecture of a low standard. It was rare for more interesting architectural developments to be designed, for example the “eastern side” of Marszałkowska Street in Warsaw. Standing proud above this backdrop are the modernist office blocks by Marek Leykam and renowned large commercial constructions (Supersam in Warsaw), sport facilities (“Spodek” hall in Katowice) and railway stations. Some of the churches built in large numbers since the 1970s were less threatened by bureaucratic interventions of the state and represent interesting, usually post-modernist forms. It was only in the mid-1990s that the prevailing conditions allowed Polish architects to take up the challenge posed by world trends in architecture and technology. This resulted in the creation of several unique edifices, notably the University of Warsaw Library. The last quarter of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century brought about the filling-in of city centres with high-rise structures: office buildings and hotels, whose aesthetic qualities do not as a rule go beyond those of glass cubes, although even this group includes more remarkable sites.

W architektonicznym tyglu : refleksje o przemianach współczesnej architektury

51%

Bal W.

Czasopismo Techniczne. Architektura

2010

tom R. 107, z. 7-A/2

7-13

Aktualny rozwój architektury i jej nowe wcielenia z trudnością dają się klasyfikować. Właśnie domyka się pierwsza dekada XXI wieku, architektoniczne kreacje pozostają wielowątkowe, są w fazie zindywidualizowanych poszukiwań zdominowanych głównie przez wielkie osobowości twórcze przełomu stuleci. Każdy z wybitnych architektów przechodzi drogę indywidualnych przemian własnej twórczości, stykając się lub balansując na granicy nurtów. Jednocześnie żaden z kierunków nie jest do końca homogeniczny, skończony.

The current development of architecture and its new incarnations with difficulty are letting classify themselves. Although the first decade of the 21st century closes, architectural creations are multithreaded, in phase of personalized search dominated mainly by the great personal creations breakthrough the century. Each of eminent architects goes through its own individual way of transformation creativity, maintaining or balancing on the border of architectural currents. Simultaneously none of the architectural styles is homogeneous and complete.