Wyniki wyszukiwania - Biblioteka Nauki

1

Book Review : Radosław Bielawski (2022) Potęgometryczny wymiar militaryzacji kosmosu. Warsaw: Military University of Technology, 256 pp., ISBN 978-83-7938-348-1

100%

Radomska A.

Security and Defence Quarterly

|

2022

|

tom Vol. 40, No. 4

91--94

2

Outer space and private companies consequences for global security

100%

Frankowski P.

Politeja : Pismo Wydziału Studiów Miedzynarodowych i Politycznych Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego

|

2017

|

nr 50

131-147

EN

The paper focuses on sectors, methods, and spheres of the space activity of private companies, to provide empirical analysis of space applications and implications for global security. Special emphasis has been given to private companies offering access to satellite imagery and satellite remote sensing, as well as companies entering outer space with new and prospective capabilities as space mining. The article explains the rising importance of geo-intelligence, space surveillance and telecommunication for global security and new kind of security challenges and vulnerabilities such as environmental problems in outer space or technological challenges to security. The author argues that profit-oriented companies play crucial role in new security environment in the US, efficiently changing the law and practice. Finally he points out that new and growing market for subcontractors in space applications raises questions on growing dependence on private resources in traditional sphere of state activity, namely security, in this case provided from and through the outer space.

3

Global Space Security and Counter-space Capabilities: the Legal and Political Challenges

100%

Polkowska M.

Adam Mickiewicz University Law Review

|

2019

|

tom 9

101-120

EN

This article undertakes a very sensitive issue: space security and counterspace capabilities and arms control. Those issues come under the sovereignty of each state and are strictly connected to national defense and policy. Counterspace, also known as space control, is the set of capabilities or techniques that are used to gain space superiority. Space superi-ority is the ability to use space for one`s own purposes while denying it to an adversary. These issues are so important now in the era of fast-growing state activities in space and under such a big dependence on space. Anti-satellite weapons (ASAT) are a subset of offensive counterspace capabilities, although the satellite itself is only one part of the system that can be attacked. That is the reason why protecting space infrastructure, in the absence of stabilized international space control cooperation and difficulties in reaching an agreement on PPWT treaty and lack of progress of international space law in this matter, is crucial by building the Space Situational Awareness system. Collaboration of states in this matter seems to be a priority.

4

International security and outer space – today’s law challenges

88%

Polkowska M.

Studia Iuridica

|

2023

|

tom 97

126-142

EN

Space security means safe and permanent access to space and limiting threats coming from there. This definition also includes the security aspects of man-made devices sent into space and of ground stations. Space infrastructure can be described as a network of space and ground systems connected by communication channels and allowing access to space. Today, the largest space powers have begun to consider space as an operational domain of warfare. Space more and more often appears to be a field for competition, which might become an arena of conflict. The aim of this article is to present today’s many law challenges to the security of space infrastructure, such as unintentional threats (space debris, geomagnetic and solar storms, and other random disturbances), intentional threats (ASAT anti-satellite weapons, malicious interference, and cyber-attacks), the growing problems of Earth orbit congestion, and the increasing amount of space debris from devices launched into space. The article also presents the role of international organizations (such as the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer space) in making laws that are intended to observe and react to all changes necessary in the outer space environment and to be proactive to help outer space to be safe and secure for all mankind. The conclusion is, however, not optimistic. Space security is a sensitive issue, mainly during conflicts or wars. States are not inclined to bind themselves by international law in this matter. Thus, due to the absence of hard international law (treaties), bilateral and multilateral agreements as well as the best practices from countries that organize space flights must apply. Space monitoring systems, such as the Situational Awareness System (SSA), the code of conduct in space, the UN Long Term Sustainability, or the space Traffic Management rules are legal tools to manage the above challenges in space today.

5

Space Security Policy in Japan and Poland

88%

Polkowska M.

Cybersecurity and Law

|

2019

|

tom 2

|

nr 2

75-100

EN

This article refers to the Space security legislation in Japan and Poland. Both states have already prepared some legislation on Security in Space- the question is the following- if there is still a need of progress and if those presented legislation are sufficient for the practical purposes of the peaceful uses of Outer Space. Japan is a much more experienced state in using space than Poland; the same seems with the legislation. Poland as less experienced state in this matter has lots of ambitions to create the efficient legislation on Space security, so it must follow the good examples of states and institution in this matter. One of them is Japan. On the other state, Poland as a Member of EU must implement the European law in space security (in particular SSA), which seems to be priceless and efficient for the international cooperation in Space.

6

Legal Foundations of Space Security

88%

Polkowska M. , Toumi M.

Teka Komisji Prawniczej

|

2023

|

tom 16

|

nr 2

309-327

EN

The advancement of space technology in recent times and the diplomatic efforts by the countries involved in space exploration indicate that conflicts in space are still possible. It is important to note that conflicts on Earth can have adverse effects in space, thereby jeopardizing security for all countries. Securing safe and sustainable access to space and preventing space hazards are crucial components of space security and safety. Maintaining the principle of peaceful use of space has become increasingly challenging today. Hence, greater attention is being devoted to the issue of space security and the corresponding international regulations. This article presents some global-level programs and initiatives, such as disarmament programs, PAROS and UN Long Term Sustainability.

7

The Space Objects Re-Entry – Status and Challenges of International Regulatory Framework

88%

Polkowska M. , Chimicz A.

Teka Komisji Prawniczej

|

2021

|

tom 14

|

nr 1

315-327

EN

The basis of the international space regulatory framework relied on the United Nations Outer Space Treaty 1967. The purpose of the paper is to present and assess the current regulatory and legal framework with regards to space security re-entry risks. The particular regulation related to space debris and re-entry may be inferred from the basic international space law (UN space treaties). As surviving fragments originating from a particular space object (usually linked to the owner) may endanger people on the ground or operating aircraft, they are directly linked to the Liability Convention 1971. Therefore nations, international intergovernmental organizations, executive agencies, and non-governmental entities maintain their efforts to create and implement hard and soft laws. Those regulations concern the space environment and its challenges, such as the proliferation of space debris, the increasing activity of space operations, the emergence of mega constellations, and its effects on re-entry characteristics. The entire material included in this article comes from dedicated conferences and seminars about Space security and policy, legal documentation, and literature review, which refer to re-entry in this subject. The research methods used in this article have comparative and analytical nature – based of the different sources of legislation.

8

Space Defense in Europe. Policy and Security Aspects

88%

Polkowska M.

Polish Political Science Yearbook

|

2020

|

nr 2 (49)

127-139

EN

Today countries participating in space activities, share serious concerns about militarization of space. The defense of space can become an important issue in the international arena, because counteracting emerging threats will probably be associated not only with the development of technology and operational capabilities, but also with the creation of political alliances or attempts at international agreement on certain “rules of the game” for space operations. Ultimately, the growing importance of “space for defense” creates the need for “defense of space”. Individual countries remain the main actors in the field of space defense. Military strategies are defined at national level, and the development and exploitation of military space assets are managed by national organizations. Today, most European countries recognize space as a strategic area, next to land, sea, air and, increasingly, cyberspace, but they have adopted different policies and doctrines depending on their sensitivity, priorities and concerns. European space forces also have different governance structures with significant differences in the distribution of roles and responsibilities, including space agencies and private entities.

9

Wkład Unii Europejskiej w rozwój międzynarodowego reżimu kosmicznego

87%

Bryła J.

Rocznik Integracji Europejskiej

|

2015

|

nr 9

123-142

EN

The growing dependence of countries and societies on the use of space technologies results in the increasing activity in outer space of new actors, both state and non-state. It produces a number of adverse outcomes for the space environment, making it a less and less safe place (e.g. space debris). Emerging threats may affect national and international security on earth. As a result, an urgent need for a collective approach to the management of the use of outer space is emerging. The international legal regime for outer space that has been developing since the beginning of the space age is no longer sufficient, because it does not take into account many rapid changes. One of the attempts to overcome this problem is the International Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities drafted by the European Union in 2008. This paper discusses the reasons why, despite long-lasting efforts and intensifying problems, the Code has so far failed to win the approval of the powers which is requisite to constitute an important part of the international outer space regime.

10

NASA Space Laser Communications System: Towards Safety of Aerospace Operations

63%

Bielawski R. , Radomska A.

|

tom 2

51-62

EN

Bidirectional space communication is a fundamental prerequisite for maintaining contact with objects performing missions in space, whether manned and unmanned. Until recently, it relied solely on the propagation of electromagnetic waves (the radio) using frequency bands dedicated for objects outside the Earth's atmosphere. However, modern space technologies are subject to ongoing development as they are being fitted with advanced communication systems. Given the constant enhancement of our technological capabilities, the traditional radio-based communication shows a glaring inadequacy and contributes to the widening of a gap between this and the high technology of on-board devices installed on modern space crafts. The technology that complies with the up-to-date requirements of space communication is optical space communication. It is expected to provide for high-speed data transfer and increase the band-width several times, while ensuring immunity to common cyber threats, including jamming, spoofing and meaconing. The deployment of laser - based optical communication will not only contribute to increasing the air and space operation safety levels, but also enable deep space exploration. To this end, NASA’s Laser Communications Relay Demonstration Project (LCRD) is currently undergoing development and testing. This chapter undertakes to characterize the emerging technology with respect to its operating principles, the future scope of applications and involvement in currently conducted experiments. The results from the analysis are presented in the form of scenarios outlining possible applications of laser communication.

11

Orbital satellite constellations and the growing threat of Kessler syndrome in the lower Earth orbit

63%

Bernat P.

Inżynieria Bezpieczeństwa Obiektów Antropogenicznych

|

2020

|

tom Nr 4

1--14

EN

The paper discusses the problem of the growing threat of orbital collisions – the Kessler syndrome in the Earth’s lower orbit caused by orbital satellite constellations developed to provide broadband internet. It provides a theoretical context for the main argument by presenting the current data related to space debris in orbit, the concept of the Kessler syndrome and its application to orbital objects, the legal framework pertaining to the issue, mitigation programs and plans, and new orbital satellites constellations under development and how they contribute to the Kessler syndrome threat. The main contribution of the paper is the carried out argument that the lack of a global legal system regulating the use of the Earth’s orbit is a factor that strengthens the threat.

12

Anti-Satellite Weapons: A Political Dimension

63%

Czajkowski M.

Safety & Defense

|

2021

|

tom 1

107--116

EN

This article tackles the political dimension of the development of anti-satellite weapons. The main goal is to assess their significance from the American, Russian, and Chinese perspective to understand the emerging balance of power in space. While the U.S. is struggling to maintain its position of dominant space power, its main adversaries are developing technologies that can diminish American dominance. It is, therefore, widely believed that outer space is poised to be weaponized by multiple systems designed to destroy satellites in-orbit, both ground- and space-based. On the other hand, the United States is executing multiple fast-track research& development programs aimed at increasing the resilience of the U.S. space systems.

13

Space Security Policy in Japan and Poland

63%

Polkowska M.

Cybersecurity and Law

|

2019

|

tom Vol. 2 (2)

75--100

EN

This article refers to the Space security legislation in Japan and Poland. Both states have already prepared some legislation on Security in Space- the question is the following- if there is still a need of progress and if those presented legislation are sufficient for the practical purposes of the peaceful uses of Outer Space. Japan is a much more experienced state in using space than Poland; the same seems with the legislation. Poland as less experienced state in this matter has lots of ambitions to create the efficient legislation on Space security, so it must follow the good examples of states and institution in this matter. One of them is Japan. On the other state, Poland as a Member of EU must implement the European law in space security (in particular SSA), which seems to be priceless and efficient for the international cooperation in Space.

PL

Niniejszy artykuł odnosi się do przepisów dotyczących bezpieczeństwa kosmicznego w Japonii i w Polsce. Oba państwa przygotowały już pewne akty prawne dotyczące bezpieczeństwa w przestrzeni kosmicznej – pytanie jest następujące – czy nadal istnieje potrzeba zmian i czy te przedstawione akty prawne są wystarczające do realizacji praktycznych celów pokojowego użytkowania przestrzeni kosmicznej. Japonia jest znacznie bardziej doświadczonym państwem w korzystaniu z przestrzeni kosmicznej niż Polska; to samo wydaje się w przypadku ustawodawstwa. Polska jako mniej doświadczone państwo w tej dziedzinie ma wiele ambicji co do stworzenia skutecznego ustawodawstwa dotyczącego bezpieczeństwa kosmicznego, dlatego musi podążać za dobrymi przykładami państw i instytucji. Jednym z nich jest Japonia. Z drugiej strony Polska jako członek UE musi wdrożyć europejskie prawo w zakresie bezpieczeństwa kosmicznego (w szczególności SSA), które wydaje się bezcenne i skuteczne dla międzynarodowej współpracy państw w Kosmosie.

14

Safety and Security law: Space Situational Awareness System (SSA) in Transatlantic Relations. Europe vis a vis the US

63%

Polkowska M.

Teka Komisji Prawniczej

|

2018

|

tom 11

|

nr 2

329-346

PL

Niniejszy artykuł dotyczy bardzo delikatnej kwestii, takiej jak bezpieczeństwo kosmiczne i jego pilnej potrzeby wdrożenia do prawa krajowego. Istnieje szereg wyzwań dla bezpieczeństwa infrastruktury kosmicznej, takich jak niezamierzone zagrożenia (śmieci kosmiczne), zagrożenia celowe (broń kosmiczna, umyślne zakłócenia, ataki cybernetyczne) lub zagrożenia związane z pogodą w przestrzeni kosmicznej (burze geomagnetyczne, burze słoneczne, itp.). Z drugiej strony, rośnie zależność od przestrzeni kosmicznej niektórych państw, w tym państw europejskich. Istnieje zatem pilna potrzeba przyspieszenia prac nad bezpieczeństwem i współpracą międzynarodową, np. między Europą a USA – „liderem kosmicznym”. Współpraca transatlantycka w dziedzinie prawa bezpieczeństwa kosmicznego ma kluczowe znaczenie. Stany Zjednoczone posiadają niezbędną wiedzę w swojej długiej historii w zakresie tworzenia strategii kosmicznej, polityki i prawa bezpieczeństwa i mogą być dobrym przykładem dla Europy w budowaniu struktur bezpieczeństwa w Kosmosie.

EN

This article undertakes a very sensitive issue such as space security and its implementation urgency into national law. There are a number of challenges to the security of space infrastructure, such as unintentional threats (space debris), intentional threats (space weapons, malicious interference, cyber-attacks) or threats related to the weather in space (geomagnetic storms, solar storms, etc.) Space is increasingly congested and various prevention and protection measures need to be implemented. On the other hand, there is a growing dependence on the space of some countries, including European ones. There is therefore an urgent need to speed up this work on security and international cooperation, e.g. between the European Union and the US – the “space leader”. The transatlantic cooperation between European states and the US is crucial in the area or space security. The US has necessary knowledge in its long history of experience of making space strategy, policy and security law and may be a good example for Europe in building the safety and security structures in space.

15

NASA Space Laser Communications System: Towards Safety of Aerospace Operations

63%

Bielawski R. , Radomska A.

Safety & Defense

|

2020

|

tom 2

51--62

EN

Bidirectional space communication is a fundamental prerequisite for maintaining contact with objects performing missions in space, whether manned and unmanned. Until recently, it relied solely on the propagation of electromagnetic waves (the radio) using frequency bands dedicated for objects outside the Earth's atmosphere. However, modern space technologies are subject to ongoing development as they are being fitted with advanced communication systems. Given the constant enhancement of our technological capabilities, the traditional radio-based communication shows a glaring inadequacy and contributes to the widening of a gap between this and the high technology of on-board devices installed on modern space crafts. The technology that complies with the up-to-date requirements of space communication is optical space communication. It is expected to provide for high-speed data transfer and increase the band-width several times, while ensuring immunity to common cyber threats, including jamming, spoofing and meaconing. The deployment of laser - based optical communication will not only contribute to increasing the air and space operation safety levels, but also enable deep space exploration. To this end, NASA’s Laser Communications Relay Demonstration Project (LCRD) is currently undergoing development and testing. This chapter undertakes to characterize the emerging technology with respect to its operating principles, the future scope of applications and involvement in currently conducted experiments. The results from the analysis are presented in the form of scenarios outlining possible applications of laser communication.

16

Space Terrorism: A Historical Study

63%

Kozera C. A. , Bernat P.

Safety & Defense

|

2023

|

tom 2

80--88

EN

The rationale behind this article is to address a critical gap in research: the evolving threat of space terrorism. As space assets increasingly become integral components of both civilian and military security systems, their vulnerability to attacks escalates. The democratization of space weaponry, including advanced cyber technologies, signals an escalating risk to these space assets and their terrestrial infrastructure. This threat extends beyond traditional space powers to include non-state actors, such as terrorist individuals and groups or various proxy forces, who were previously considered marginal threats. This paper aims to lay a foundational framework by providing a historical overview of terrorism and security incidents involving outer space assets, their cyber systems, and ground support structures. This compilation serves as a basis for a deeper, methodological, and systematic examination of the nature and implications of space terrorism. In order to define the initial concept of space terrorism, this paper draws on an extensive literature review. The selection of security breach cases within the broad spectrum of the space sector was guided by their novelty, diversity, and relevance, offering insights into the emerging phenomenon of space terrorism.

17

Anti-Satellite Weapons: A Political Dimension

63%

Czajkowski M.

Safety & Defense

|

2021

|

tom 1

107-116

EN

This article tackles the political dimension of the development of anti-satellite weapons. The main goal is to assess their significance from the American, Russian, and Chinese perspective to understand the emerging balance of power in space. While the U.S. is struggling to maintain its position of dominant space power, its main adversaries are developing technologies that can diminish American dominance. It is, therefore, widely believed that outer space is poised to be weaponized by multiple systems designed to destroy satellites in-orbit, both ground- and space-based. On the other hand, the United States is executing multiple fast-track research& development programs aimed at increasing the resilience of the U.S. space systems.

18

Rewitalizacja zdegradowanych obszarów miejskich jako element kształtowania bezpieczeństwa publicznego

51%

Kowalczyk J.

Bezpieczeństwo. Teoria i Praktyka

|

2020

|

nr 4

91-108

EN

Infrastructural projects undertaken as part of recovery schemes – including reconstruction, renovation, modernisation, and adaptation of old buildings – are aimed at counteracting negative socio-spatial phenomena. This is due to the fact that urban recovery initiatives are conducted in places epitomised by a large concentration of social problems, including unemployment, poverty, poor education, as well as crime, and low levels of safety and security. The connection between degradation of urban space and the level of security in local urban communities was noticed at the beginning of the twentieth century by researchers from the Chicago School, known for their efforts to transfer ecological orientation into social sciences. The social accomplishments of the Chicago School were further developed in the 1960s in the US and Canada. The disappointment with limited ability to influence potential criminals and the low success rate of rehabilitation schemes pushed researchers to focus on other theories pertaining to crime prevention in cities, and to focus more on spatial conditions. The emerging theoretical approaches constituted a set of postulates regarding the ways in which urban space ought to be shaped in order to effectively reduce crime rates and strengthen the sense of security in local communities. The aim of this paper is to analyse the leading urban space security postulates formulated by American and Canadian criminologists and urbanists, and to attempt to provide a sensible answer to the question of whether it is possible to use these postulates for recovery projects in disadvantaged urban areas in order to counteract negative socio-spatial phenomena.

PL

Podejmowane w ramach rewitalizacji przedsięwzięcia infrastrukturalne związane z przebudową, remontami, modernizacją czy adaptacją wiekowych budowli, mają na celu przeciwdziałanie negatywnym zjawiskom o charakterze społeczno-przestrzennym. Działania rewitalizacyjne są podejmowane w przestrzeni miejskiej charakteryzującej się dużym natężeniem problemów społecznych, takich jak: bezrobocie, ubóstwo, niski poziom edukacji i bezpieczeństwa, a także przestępczość. Związek między degradacją przestrzeni miejskiej a poziomem bezpieczeństwa społeczności lokalnej w miastach został dostrzeżony na początku XX w. przez badaczy szkoły chicagowskiej, znanej z próby przeniesienia orientacji ekologicznej na grunt badań społecznych. Rozwinięciem dorobku tej szkoły były badania prowadzone od lat 60. w Stanach Zjednoczonych oraz Kanadzie. Rozczarowanie ograniczoną możliwością oddziaływania na potencjalnych sprawców oraz niską skutecznością resocjalizacji skłoniło badaczy do skoncentrowania uwagi na innych teoriach skupiających się na zapobieganiu przestępczości w miastach, w tym na uwarunkowaniach przestrzennych. Powstałe ujęcia teoretyczne stanowiły zbiór postulatów dotyczących tego, w jaki sposób należy kształtować przestrzeń miejską, aby sprzyjała ona redukcji przestępczości oraz stanowiła czynnik wzmacniający poczucie bezpieczeństwa lokalnej społeczności. Celem artykułu jest analiza głównych postulatów sformułowanych przez amerykańskich i kanadyjskich kryminologów i urbanistów, dotyczących przestrzennych aspektów bezpieczeństwa w miastach, a także próba znalezienia odpowiedzi na pytanie, czy podczas prowadzenia przedsięwzięć rewitalizacyjnych na zdegradowanych obszarach miejskich możliwe jest zastosowanie tych postulatów w celu przeciwdziałania negatywnym zjawiskom o charakterze społeczno-przestrzennym.

19

Chińska strategia A2/AD. Polityczne implikacje dla bezpieczeństwa w przestrzeni kosmicznej

51%

czajkowski m.

Rocznik Bezpieczeństwa Międzynarodowego

|

2018

|

tom 12

|

nr 2

69-89

EN

This paper is supposed to analyze briefly one of key elements of the Chinese strategy aimed on weakening the American military dominance, with the special attention to the role of space systems therein. It describes in the most general terms the military strategy of the United Statest, then it pictures the Chinese A2/AD (anti-access/area denial) concept as an asymmetric answer to the U.S. military supremacy. The special attention is paid to its limitations and the role of space systems in overcoming the restraints. And finally it characterizes some of the political consequences that come out of all the above and that might reflect on the general state of the space security.

PL

Niniejszy artykuł ma za zadanie pokrótce scharakteryzować jeden z podstawowych elementów chińskiej strategii ograniczania militarnej dominacji USA, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem roli systemów kosmicznych. W najbardziej ogólnych kategoriach omawia więc amerykańską strategię militarną; a następnie opisuje chińską koncepcję A2/AD jako asymetryczną odpowiedź na amerykańską przewagę. Szczególną uwagę zwracamy na ograniczenia tej koncepcji i rolę systemów kosmicznych w ich przezwyciężaniu. I wreszcie omawiamy niektóre polityczne konsekwencje powyższego, które mogą oddziaływać na stan bezpieczeństwa kosmicznego.

20

The United States Space Force in the American Security Strategy

51%

Czajkowski M.

Krakowskie Studia Międzynarodowe

|

2020

|

nr 1

25-41

EN

It is often being argued that Russia, China, and other unfriendly nations are developing a wide range of counter-space systems that are able to degrade the U.S. capabilities in space. Among the other measures to address this problem, the separate service has recently been created within the U.S. military, the United States Space Force. It is tasked to combine space-related capabilities to form a unified and so more effective service than the existing ones scattered across the armed forces. This article depicts and assesses the primary rationale behind the decision to create USSF, against the broad background of the United States security strategy with particular attention to the role of outer space in it. We will, therefore, firstly describe in brief the role of outer space in the security strategy of the United States. Secondly, we will present the current state and mission of the U.S. Space Force and its perspectives. And finally, we will address some controversies related to the creation of the new military branch.

PL

Często argumentuje się, że Rosja, Chiny oraz inne nieprzyjazne USA państwa rozwijają różne środki służące zanegowaniu amerykańskich zdolności do działania w przestrzeni kosmicznej. Obok innych działań nakierowanych na przeciwstawienie się temu zagrożeniu, niedawno powołano Siły Kosmiczne Stanów Zjednoczonych jako osobny rodzaj sił zbrojnych. Ich zadaniem jest połączenie systemów kosmicznych działających na rzecz bezpieczeństwa narodowego w jeden, zunifikowany, a zatem bardziej efektywny podmiot niż w przypadku rozrzucenia tych systemów po różnych rodzajach sił zbrojnych. Artykuł opisuje i ocenia podstawowe założenia stojące za tą decyzją na szerokim tle strategii bezpieczeństwa Stanów Zjednoczonych, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem roli przestrzeni kosmicznej. Dlatego w pierwszej kolejności krótko omówiono rolę przestrzeni kosmicznej w strategii bezpieczeństwa USA, a następnie przedstawiono aktualny stan i zadania Sił Kosmicznych USA. Na koniec odniesiono się do niektórych kontrowersji związanych z utworzeniem nowego rodzaju sił zbrojnych.