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1

Die deutsche Politik und die Reparationsfrage nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg: Eine kritische Bilanz unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Auseinandersetzungen mit Polen

100%

Roth K. H.

Przegląd Zachodni

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2019

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nr 1(370)

59-82

EN

The aim of the article is to present the problem of reparations. The issue of reparations remains a controversial and explosive chapter in the history of Europe after World War II. Whereas the larger victorious powers received some compensation in the years immediately after the war, the smaller European countries, as well as numerous victim groups, largely came away empty-handed. One of these countries is Poland, which to this day is calling for reparations to compensate for the plundering of its economy and for the victims of the massacres under the Nazi occupation. The article presents as a main problem the question, why to this day, the German elites have refused to pay reparations which take into account all victim groups and all the countries once occupied by Germany. In this article, the author explores the context, the strategic options and the tactics behind the German elites’ approach towards compensation – an approach which culminated in the issue of reparations being removed from the de facto peace treaty of 1990 (the ‘Two Plus Four Treaty’). The paper is based on various research methods, especially on survey of diplomatic documents and some studies published in Poland and Germany on the subject.

2

Analiza różnic znaczeniowych pojęć: „reparacje”, „odszkodowanie”, „zadośćuczynienie” w ujęciu polskim i niemieckim, w kontekście działań podejmowanych przez Rzeczpospolitą Polską w relacjach z Republiką Federalną Niemiec, dotyczących odpowiedzialności za skutki II wojny światowej

88%

Przyłębski A.

Zeszyty Prawnicze BAS

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2022

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nr 4(76)

250-258

EN

In both the Polish and German languages, the term ‘reparations’ is almost exclusively associated with the compensation for wartime losses incurred by a state as a result of unjustified military aggression on the part of another, ultimately defeated state. The term ‘compensation’ has the broadest scope in both languages. Therefore, this term used in the parliamentary resolution of October 2022 concerning reparations from the Federal Republic of Germany seems appropriate, as the material and non-material losses of the Polish state and its citizens in 1939, caused by the Nazi Germany, are evident and easily demonstrable.

3

The German-Polish Treaties of 1970 and 1990/1991 and the Question of Reparations

88%

Hobe S.

Polish Yearbook of International Law

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2021

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tom 41

57-62

EN

The article takes the renewed demands of the Polish government as an opportunity to examine the question of whether Germany is obliged to pay reparations to Poland. Based on an analysis of the international agreements concluded since 1945, it can be shown that the Polish government’s demands on Germany are unfounded.

4

Problem niemieckich reparacji po I wojnie światowej

88%

Kotłowski T.

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nr 2(351)

121-138

EN

The problem of war reparations (compensations) was a key issue in Germany’s relations with the winning countries. On 5 May 1921 the Reparations Commission established the overall sum of reparations at 132 billion gold marks (31,5 billion dollars). This sum included the natural resources and currency already previously charged from Germany. In 1923 because of arrears in the payments French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr region. The crisis was overcome on 30 August 1924 when the Dawes plan was accepted. It stabilized German economy (by means of American and international credits) and regulated the issue of payments for the next five years. On 12 March 1930 another plan of reparations payment was adopted (the Young plan), but worldwide economic crisis prevented its implementation. On 9 July an agreement that terminated the problem of reparations was concluded in Lausanne.

5

Asymetria odszkodowań dla obywateli Polski za szkody poniesione w II wojnie światowej w stosunku do odszkodowań wypłaconych obywatelom innych państw

88%

Bainczyk M.

Przegląd Zachodni

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2019

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nr 1(370)

83-104

EN

After the Second World War, Germany was obliged to pay reparations to the countries participating in the winning coalition. Among other things, due to the fact that the states on both sides of the Iron Curtain ceased to collect them, the question of financial compensation for the losses incurred by natural persons in connection with international crimes committed by Third Reich officers was not resolved.The main aim of this paper is a dogmatic, historical and comparative analysis of the legal foundations for payment of compensations to citizens of Germany, Western European countries, Israel, the United States and Central European countries and also an assessment of these legal solutions, especially from the Polish perspective. The legal solutions adopted led to a blatant dual asymmetry in terms of compensation for natural persons: 1. between German citizens and the citizens of occupied countries, 2. between citizens of Western European countries, the United States of America and Israel on the one hand and the countries of Central and Eastern Europe on the other. This asymmetry contradicts the principles of human dignity, equality before the law and the prohibition of discrimination on grounds of national origin, which were developed after the Second World War in a framework of the international human rights protection systems.

6

The German-Polish Cultural Property Debate – Can Pragmatic Solutions Overcome a Convoluted Controversy?

75%

Dederer H.-G. , Beham M. P.

Polish Yearbook of International Law

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2021

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tom 41

81-92

EN

This contribution discusses the unresolved claims of Poland and Germany arising from the destruction, removal, and appropriation of cultural property during and immediately following the Second World War; viewed against the background of the 50th anniversary of the 1970 Warsaw Treaty and the 30th anniversary of the 1990 2+4 Treaty. It provides an analysis of the extent to which these and other bilateral treaties between Germany and Poland impose legal obligations to restore or compensate for the destruction or loss of cultural property. Finally, it suggests pragmatic solutions to overcome the convoluted political, diplomatic and legal debates in the spirit of “cultural internationalism” and in line with the proposals of the Copernicus Group of Polish and German historians.

7

Społeczno-polityczny dyskurs wokół reparacji dla Afroamerykanów i ustawy H.R. 40

63%

Modrzejewska M.

Horyzonty Polityki

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2022

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tom 13

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nr 43

27-49

EN

RESEARCH OBJECTIVE: To analyze the discourse surrounding the legislative process for the “Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act” in order to identify the arguments and objectives of reparations for African Americans. THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AND METHODS: Research questions: what purposes would be served by paying reparations and how important is the economic component in the discussion process. We used MAXQDA to analyze the content of legal documents (bills, resolutions) and hearings before the subcommittee (recording of June 19, 2019, 3:39:57 and recording of February 17, 2021, 3:09:26) and prepared written witness statements (9 people testifying in 2019 and 7 people testifying in 2021). THE PROCESS OF ARGUMENTATION: The text analyzes the evolution of the arguments and proposals aimed at establishing the “Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act” what the first step is towards identifying and paying reparations to African Americans with a focus on the 2019 hearings before the Congressional Legislative Committee. RESEARCH RESULTS: The reparations debate is waged in moral, emotionally charged terms where those involved in the discourse refer to their heritage. Contrary to the narrative of the opponents of reparations, the economic aspect and the financial benefits on an individual level are not the primary focus of the debate for the proponents. Since the solution was introduced for debate in 1989, there has been a visible increase in support for the project in both Congress and the American public. CONCLUSIONS, INNOVATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS: Given the contemporaneity and importance of the phenomenon, further analysis of the discourse is necessary, particularly if a “Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act” is established and, as designed, prepares its report and recommendations.

PL

CEL NAUKOWY: Przeanalizowanie dyskursu wokół procesu legislacyjnego zmierzającego do powołania „Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act”, tak aby zidentyfikować argumentację i cele, którym miałoby służyć wypłacenie reparacji dla Afroamerykanów. PROBLEM i METODY BADAWCZE: Pytania badawcze, jakim celom miałoby służyć wypłacenie reparacji oraz na ile ważny jest komponent ekonomiczny w procesie dyskusji. Zastosowano MAXQDA do analizy treści dokumentów prawnych (projektów ustaw, rezolucji) oraz przesłuchań przed podkomisją (nagranie z dnia 19 czerwca 2019, 3:39:57 oraz nagranie z dnia 17 lutego 2021 roku, 3:09:26) oraz przygotowanych pisemnie wystąpień świadków (9 osób zeznających w roku 2019 oraz 7 osób zeznających w 2021 roku). PROCES WYWODU: Tekst analizuje ewolucje argumentów i propozycji zmierzających do powołania „Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act” jako pierwszego etapu zmierzającego do określenia i wypłacenia reparacji Afroamerykanom, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem przesłuchań z roku 2019 i 2021 przed Komisją legislacyjną Kongresu. WYNIKI ANALIZY NAUKOWEJ: Nacechowana emocjonalnie debata nad reparacjami toczona jest w kategoriach moralnych, a osoby zaangażowane w dyskurs odwołują się do swojego dziedzictwa. Wbrew narracji przeciwników reparacji, aspekt ekonomiczny i benefity finansowe na poziomie indywidualnym nie są dla zwolenników pierwszoplanowym elementem debaty. Od momentu wprowadzenia rozwiązania pod obrady, w roku 1989, widoczny jest wzrost poparcia dla projektu zarówno w Kongresie, jak i w społeczeństwie amerykańskim. WNIOSKI, INNOWACJE, REKOMENDACJE: Ze względu na aktualność oraz wagę zjawiska niezbędna jest dalsza analiza dyskursu, szczególnie jeśli powołanoby „Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act”, a ta zgodnie z projektem przygotuje swój raport i rekomendacje.

8

SPRAWA NIEMIECKICH ODSZKODOWAŃ ZA II WOJNĘ ŚWIATOWĄW STOSUNKACH MIĘDZY POLSKĄ A RFN DO 1991 R.

63%

Żerko S.

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nr 3

101-125

PL

Rząd PRL pod naciskiem ZSRR w deklaracji z 23 sierpnia 1953 r. zrzekł się repa-racji od Niemiec. Od tego czasu RFN konsekwentnie stoi na stanowisku, że na drodze prawnej sprawa świadczeń dla polskich ofiar okupacji niemieckiej jest dawno zamknięta. Mimo to dwukrotnie (w 1970 i 1990 r.) RFN usiłowała uzyskać od Polski potwierdzenie ważności deklaracji z 1953 r. Wszystkie świadczenia wypłacane na mocy zawartych w omawianym okresie układów polsko-niemieckich (1972 i 1991 r.) były przedstawiane przez RFN jako pomoc humanitarna, na zasadzie „ex gratia”.

EN

The government of the Polish People's Republic, under pressure from the USSR, renounced reparations from Germany in a declaration dated August 23rd, 1953. Since that time the Federal Republic of Germany consistently holds the position, that the case of repa-rations for Polish victims of German occupation has long been closed legally. Nonetheless, the Federal Republic of Germany was trying twice (in 1970 and 1990) to obtain from Poland a confirmation of the validity of the declaration from the year 1953. All the benefits paid out in accordance with the Polish-German agreements concluded in the period in question (1972 and 1991) were presented by the Federal Republic of Germany as humanitarian aid, on the principle of "ex gratia".

9

The Price of Defeat: Soviet Economic Expansion in Hungary, 1945–1954

63%

Borhi L.

Institute of National Remembrance Review

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2023

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tom 5

535-556

EN

Sovietization and imperial expansion were two sides of the same coin in postwar Soviet policy towards Hungary, two simultaneous processes that were closely interrelated. Economic penetration in Hungary was an end in itself and it also served to remove the economic pillar of Hungarian independence. Besides promoting the goal of imperial conquest and the rooting of Stalinism, exploitative economic policies benefited Soviet reconstruction and militarization, and yielded well over a billion dollars for the Soviet economy.

10

The Lubanga Reparations Decision: A Missed Opportunity?

63%

Swart M.

Polish Yearbook of International Law

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2012

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tom 32

169-188

EN

In March 2012 the ICC delivered its first and long-awaited judgment in Prosecutor v Lubanga. Trial Chamber I found Thomas Lubanga guilty as co-perpetrator of the war crimes of conscripting and enlisting children into the armed forces. The guilty verdict was followed by a reparations decision on 7 August 2012. This article examines the extent to which the ICC has successfully fulfilled its mandate to formulate reparations principles. The position of reparations within international law generally is discussed. This is followed by an explanation of how the ICC reparation regime functions. The bifurcated reparations mandate of the ICC is also explained. The focus of the article is on a critical assessment of the Lubanga reparations decision. The Court’s treatment of the harm requirement and the requirement of causation is examined. It is argued that the Court’s failure to clarify the requirements of “harm” and “causation” meant that it did not fulfil its mandate to formulate reparations principles.

11

Niemieckie reparacje wojenne za II wojnę światową (polskie kontrowersje)

51%

Wyszczelski L.

Copernicus Political and Legal Studies

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2023

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tom 2

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nr 2

47-60

PL

Niemieckie reparacje wojenne narzucone zostały przez zwycięskie mocarstwa arbitralnie, bowiem nie doszło do zwołania konferencji pokojowej. Oszacowane zostały na 20 mln dolarów kursu z 1938 r., z tego połowa przypadła ZSRR (w jego puli PRL miała otrzymać 15%). Do tego były samodzielnie ściągane przez mocarstwa. Zaniechanie ich ściągania mocarstwa zachodnie uczyniły pod koniec lat 40. XX w., ZSRR, w tym PRL, w 1953 r. Zarówno RFN, jak i cztery mocarstwa, podpisując tzw. układ dwa plus cztery w 1990 r., uznały zamknięcie sprawy II wojny światowej. Polska uzyskała w ramach reparacji rosyjskich tylko część należnych jej reparacji. I jak dotąd odszkodowania finansowe od RFN są niesatysfakcjonujące. W okresie rządów PiS prezes Jarosław Kaczyński uznał żądania takowych reparacji za temat polityczny dla osłabiania międzynarodowej pozycji RFN, także UE oraz dla własnych kampanii wyborczych.

EN

German war reparations were imposed arbitrarily by the victorious powers, because no peace conference was convened. They were estimated at $20 million at the 1938 exchange rate, half of which went to the USSR (the Polish People’s Republic was to receive 15% of its pool). In addition, they were imported by the great powers themselves. Western powers abandoned their importation in the late 1940s, and the USSR, including the Polish People’s Republic, abandoned it in 1953. Both the Federal Republic of Germany and the four superpowers signed the so-called the two plus four agreement in 1990 considered the end of World War II. Poland received only part of the reparations due to it as part of Russian reparations. And so far, financial compensation from the Federal Republic of Germany has not satisfied her. During the PiS government, President Jarosław Kaczyński considered demands for such reparations to be a political issue aimed at weakening the international position of Germany, including the EU, and for his own election campaigns.

12

Odškodňování imateriálních újem sekundárních obětí

51%

Doležal T.

Časopis zdravotnického práva a bioetiky (Journal of Medical Law and Bioethics)

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2017

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tom 7

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nr 2

44-59

EN

Compensation for non-economic damage of the secondary victims presents in many countries very controversarial topic. This paper analyses the basic problems connected with this institute and provides comparative overview of compensation in different countries. Subsequently describes this article legal position in the Czech Republic.

CS

Problematika odškodňování imateriálních újem sekundárních obětí představuje komplikovaný a kontroverzní právní institut. V tomto článku jsou pak shrnuty základní problémy související s odškodňováním imateriálních újem sekundárních obětí a provedeno srovnání přístupů k tomuto institutu v několika zemích. Následně je analyzována právní úprava odškodňování sekundárních obětí v ČR.