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EN
This year marks the twentieth anniversary of the largest economic grouping in history, both in terms of surface area and the generated GDP – the North American Free Trade Agreement – NAFTA. The grouping was established on 1 January 1994, with the objective of gradually doing away with the existing tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade between the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Its objectives and effects have long been under careful examination and subject to many analyses. Prognoses varied, from potentially significant benefits to anticipated losses, particularly for US economy. The paper is an attempt at presenting the twenty years of NAFTA operation, predominantly from the viewpoint of its impact on the trilateral trade exchange, unemployment, inflation, and the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of its member states. The analyses suggest that NAFTA has proved its effectiveness in generating trade revenues for all its members, most notably for Mexico. However, its effects on individual income and employment were found to be marginal or, at best, moderate.
EN
The six founders of the European Economic Community, later the European Union, did not differ substantially in terms of an economic level. Therefore the issue of policy and the problems connected with a regional development started to be discussed along with the development of the economic integration and the enlargement of Communities with another countries, which were much different economically from the founders. The European Regional Development Fund (ERDF ) was established at the Copenhagen summit in 1975 and the resources were distributed into member states. The subsequent enlargement of the Community in 1986 with Spain and Portugal contributed to signing the Single European Act (SEA), which created the basis for a new structural policy and its reform in 1988, and the binding rules were additionally enlarged in the European Union Treaty from Maastricht. The EU Treaty signed on 07.02.1992 in Maastricht in the Netherlands established the European Union and came into force on 01.11.1993. Poland, after entering the European Union on 01.05.2004, taking into consideration the experience from the absorption of the pre-accession funds for ten years, i.e. since 1994, since the first days after the accession used well the EU resources and the Lubuskie Voivodship led the way within this range in Poland. Therefore the regional development was supported by the structural funds orientated first of all to infrastructure and the protection of natural environment. The assistance programme of the European Union for the countries of Central and Eastern Europe – Phare had its edition since 1994 in the Lubuskie Voivodship as Phare Cross Border Cooperation CBC – the Programme of Poland – Germany Cross Border Cooperation was mainly used for the implementation of investment projects on the Polish-German borderland. This experience was implemented in the effective use of the support within the Integrated Operational Programme of Regional Development in 2004–2006. Over 80 million euros granted for the Lubuskie Voivodship were orientated mainly to road, council and social infrastructure and the cross border cooperation was financed by the Community Initiative Interreg III A, whose objective was to support the integrated and sustainable development in the economic, social and cultural area on the Polish-German borderland.
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Purpose: The aim of this paper is to show the conditions of the EU against the realities of the global economy in the post-crisis era, an indication of which are the determinants of the development of the competitive advantage of the Community. Methodology: An analysis of the determinants of growth at different stages of the process of EU integration with particular emphasis on optimum currency area criteria for the euro zone crisis, under asymmetric demand shock. Findings: The last global crisis has highlighted the structural weaknesses of the EU, which in times of economic prosperity can be compensated by a system of transfers and the mechanism of credibility borrowing. With such a strong crisis Europe needs more growth. Research limitations: The costs of this crisis affect the Community, significant for both public finances and the standard of life, but are also visible on a global scale, which is difficult to estimate. Originality: An ex ante perspective on the determinants that will not only restore EU’s position in the world, but also did not miss an opportunity to play a significant role in the rapidly changing global economy, the twenty first century.
EN
Numerous economic indicators are used for the purpose of research and international comparisons. Most important are Gross Domestic Product (GDP), national income, unemployment rate, inflation rate, foreign trade’s and investments’ share in GDP. Other measures, which are based on GDP, may be used for the economic growth assessment. These are for example economy internationalization, activity level, openness and dependence and international competitiveness. The aim of this paper is to assess the level of economic development and foreign relations of the countries forming the economic group of NAFTA. After a brief introduction to the subject, the manner of calculating the indicators that are used for such an assessment more rarely is described. Then the indicators calculated for the current NAFTA member states are analysed.
EN
The article discusses the United Kingdom’s policy towards the first post-war integration initiatives of Western Europe and the United States. It was a special period in the history of the European integration. Then, for the first time in the history of Europe, there were real opportunities for practical implementation of at least some of the numerous integration ideas. The initiators and authors of projects to unite Europe were various political organizations of Western Europe and the government of the United States. The United Kingdom was a world superpower at that time and because of various reasons it had to take an ambivalent stand on the issue of Western European integration. On account of the specificity of its international interests, which are thoroughly analyzed by the author, this state could not actively participate in the European integration trend. However, it was not in the British interest to sabotage the integration undertakings of the continental part of Western Europe either. In such circumstances, the United Kingdom forced through a policy of close co-operation between Western European countries as an alternative to integration ideas. Until 1954 the British policy towards continental integration initiatives can be described as very effective. The United Kingdom skillfully managed to hold up the use of post-war American aid to Europe as a form of stimulus for Western European integration (European Recovery Program – Marshall Plan). As a result of its policy, an authentically European parliamentary assembly, aimed at initiating and stimulating European integration process through grass-roots social pressure on governments (Resolution of the Hague Congress), did not take place. The political and diplomatic successes determined the British assessment of prospects for the European integration and British possibilities to influence the process of Western European unification. They made British politicians incorrectly – as it turned out – believe that the United Kingdom could successfully halt attempts of supranational integration by forcing through an idea of co-operation of sovereign states. After a few years there were no doubts that the assessment had been wrong. In this case traditional attitude towards international politics did badly in comparison with new realities, i.e. an innovative integration trend.
EN
During the debt crisis in Europe as well as during the global financial crisis it became clear that existing solutions on economic governance were highly unsatisfactory. After numerous measures having rather uncoordinated features and executed in an ad hoc manner, even in the particular member states, the EU has started to examine the framework of an economic governance in Europe. The intention of this text is to present, in the chronological order, measures having been adopted in the last three – four years. We start with a description of so called Sixpact consisting of five regulations and one directive. These legal acts aim to strengthen discipline concerning fiscal policies not only in the eurozone but also in all the remaining member states of the EU. They also cover measures on counteracting excessive macroeconomic imbalances. European semester constitutes a very important part of the Sixpact that should foster the co-ordination of the economic governance in the EU. Next, a Treaty on Stability, Co-ordination and Economic Governance has been detailed. It has been indicated that TSCG will not be binding (similarly as the Euro Plus Pact) for all the member states. Finally, the newest European project, so called Twopack, has been described. Twopack significantly interferes into procedures of forming national budgets in the eurozone member states. The article does not provide for the European Stability Mechanism because its description would largely surpass the allowed length of the text.
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2014
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tom 6(42)
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nr 2
115-130
PL
Tekst przedstawia podstawowy proces (integrację) oraz główne gospodarki (Argentynę, Brazylię, Chile) Ameryki Południowej, źródła i siły współczesnej transformacji tego kontynentu ku własnej cywilizacyjnej tożsamości.
EN
The text presents the basic process (integration) and major economies (Argentina, Brazil, Chile) of the South America, the source and the strength of the modern transformation of this continent towards own civilizational identity.
PL
Przedmiotem pracy jest analiza procesów integracji gospodarczej w Ameryce Południowej. Celem przeprowadzonych badań jest próba dokonania oceny, w jakim stopniu utworzenie ugrupowania Sojuszu Pacyfiku może wpłynąć na kształt procesów integracyjnych na tym kontynencie oraz stanowić alternatywę dla istniejących już ugrupowań, w szczególności największego ugrupowania integracyjnego w Ameryce Południowej, którym jest Wspólny Rynek Południa (Mercosur). W pracy przeprowadzono analizę porównawczą modelu integracji oraz polityki gospodarczej państw tworzących Sojusz Pacyfiku oraz Mercosur, a także analizę danych jakościowych i ilościowych w stosunku do wskaźników ekonomicznych badanych państw. Na bazie przeprowadzonej analizy, wykazane zostały zależności między polityką gospodarczą oraz poziomem rozwoju gospodarczego analizowanych państw, ocen w zakresie konkurencyjności gospodarek oraz stanu wolności gospodarczej. Przeprowadzone badania wykazały, że wspólną cechą polityki gospodarczej państw Sojuszu Pacyfiku jest stosunkowo duże, w porównaniu z innymi państwami regionu, otwarcie na zewnętrzną konkurencję oraz instytucjonalizacja współpracy gospodarczej z państwami wysoko rozwiniętymi. Badania wykazały ponadto, że zastosowana przez te państwa polityka gospodarcza oraz otwarty model integracji gospodarczej miały pozytywny wpływ na ich rozwój gospodarczy, wysokość wymiany handlowej oraz poziom napływu inwestycji zagranicznych.
EN
The subject matter of the study is an analysis of the processes of economic integration in South America. The aim of the carried out research is an attempt to assess to what degree the setting up the Pacific Alliance formation may affect the shape of the integration processes on this continent and be an alternative for the already existing formations, particularly the biggest integration bloc in South America, i.e. the Southern Common Market (Mercosur). In his study, the author carried out a comparative analysis of the model of integration and the economic policy of the states forming the Pacific Alliance and Mercosur, as well as an analysis of quantitative and qualitative data related to the economic indicators of the states in question. Based on the carried out analysis, the author pointed out to the relationships between the economic policy and the level of economic development of the states being analysed, evaluations related to competitiveness of economies and the condition of economic freedom. The carried out research have demonstrated that the common feature of the economic policy of the Pacific Alliance member states is a relatively large, compared to other states of the region, openness to external competition and institutionalisation of economic cooperation with economically advanced states. The research also have shown that the economic policy applied by these states and the open model of economic integration have had a positive impact on their economic development, volume of trade, and the level of foreign investment inflow.
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Content available Wpływ integracji europejskiej na wzrost gospodarczy
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PL
W artykule opisane zostały koszty i korzyści integracji gospodarczej w Europie. Przystąpienie do Unii Europejskiej wiąże się z usunięciem barier w swobodnym przepływie towarów, kapitału i siły roboczej między członkami UE. Oznacza to efektywniejsze wykorzystanie zasobów gospodarczych, poprawę konkurencyjności i wydajności. Drugi etap integracji – wprowadzenie euro – także niesie za sobą wiele korzyści, takich jak: eliminacja kosztów transakcyjnych i ryzyka kursowego, spadek stóp procentowych. W dłuższej perspektywie przyjęcie wspólnej waluty może prowadzić do wzrostu handlu, inwestycji i finalnego efektu, jakim jest przyspieszenie wzrostu gospodarczego. Oczywiście, poza korzyściami, integracja pociąga za sobą pewne koszty, przede wszystkim związane z utratą niezależnej polityki pieniężnej. Wielkość tych kosztów zależy od adekwatności decyzji EBC do sytuacji gospodarczej danego kraju. W niniejszym artykule odpowiedź na pytanie o bilans korzyści i kosztów oraz wpływ integracji na wzrost gospodarczy poszukiwana jest poprzez budowę modelu ekonometrycznego. Integracja wyrażona została za pomocą zmiennych zero-jedynkowych. Wyniki estymacji potwierdzają pozytywną zależność między wzrostem gospodarczym i integracją europejską.
EN
This paper describes the costs and benefits of European economic integration. Accession to European Union is associated with the reduction of all obstacles to the free flow of goods, capital and labor across UE members. It means more efficient use of economic resources, improving competitiveness and productivity. The second step of integration – introduction of the euro also brings a lot of advantages, such as for example: the elimination of transactional costs and exchange rate uncertainty and decrease in interest rates. In the long run the adoption of a common currency is related to increase in trade, investments and the final effect – increase in economic growth. Obviously, we have to remember about the costs of integration – above all, loss of independent monetary policy. The size of the costs depends on the adequacy of the ECB decisions to the economic situation in a particular country. In this paper, we try to answer the question about the influence of European integration on economic growth. We present a description of econometric model – estimation results confirm positive correlation between economic growth and European integration.
PL
Autor rozważa podstawowe cechy modelu społecznej gospodarki rynkowej, traktowanej jako alternatywa wobec neoliberalnego modelu polityki gospodarczej. Wskazuje na potrzebę uzupełnienia tego modelu uwzględniającą zmiany, które zachodzą we współczesnej gospodarce w związku z jej globalizacją. Wskazuje również na negatywne konsekwencje wyzwań globalizacyjnych, w szczególności problemy, jakie wynikają z globalizacji dla instytucji państwa.
EN
The author studies the fundamental features of the social market economy model, which is treated as an alternative to the neoliberal approach to economic policy. He indicates the necessity to complement this model with account of the changes taking place in the contemporary economy as a result of increasing globalisation. The author also points out the negative consequences of globalisation challenges, particularly the problems faced by state institutions.
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EN
The aim of the article is to present the trade integration effects for developing countries depending on the economic development level of their partners in the process of merging economies. The article provides a detailed description of the concept of developing countries and an analysis of South – South and North – South integration models.
PL
Przedmiotem analizy w niniejszej artykule był handel usługowy w formie związanej z przepływem osób. Wyniki badania prowadzą do głównego wniosku, że unijna reforma przepisów w zakresie świadczenia usług na rynku wewnętrznym okazała się być mało skuteczna. Nie spowodowała ona bowiem wzrostu w UE wymiany wewnątrzunijnej, zarówno pod względem wartości absolutnych, jak i udziału w całości transakcji. Państwa UE-15 wykazują przy tym trwalsze powiązania z rynkiem wewnętrznym niż „nowi” członkowie UE. Zależy to zapewne od stopnia rozwoju innych niż opisany w artykule form zaangażowania państw UE w wymianę na rynku wewnętrznym usług.
EN
The aim of this article is to analyse EU trade in services in its movement-ofpersons-mode. The main conclusion is that regulatory reforms to further integrate EU services markets have brought modest results. Neither the value of intra-EU trade in services nor its part in total EU trade have risen. One can also observe that the EU-15 countries have shown stronger links with EU internal market than the EU-12 countries. This can be related to supply of services through other modes of delivery.
PL
W artykule przedstawiono analizę współpracy pomiędzy lokalnymi instytucjami w miastach europejskich, które wyłaniają się pod wpływem rozporządzeń wspólnotowych ustanawiających przepisy ogólne w sprawie funduszy strukturalnych, zwłaszcza w okresie programowania 2000-2006. W szczególności artykuł analizuje istniejące formy współpracy w dwóch europejskich miastach: w Krakowie, mieście z nowego kraju członkowskiego Unii Europejskiej, i w Glasgow, ze starego kraju członkowskiego UE.
EN
This paper analyses various forms of cooperation between local institutions in European cities, which emerge from the impact of European regulations laying down general provisions on structural funds, mostly in the programming period 2000-2006. More specifically, the paper addresses the issues of whether mobilization around EU-funded projects contributes to the emergence of new forms of cooperation or whether actors benefiting from EU funds are based on pre-existing local networks and relationships. Cooperation among institutions is analysed from two perspectives: ‘top down’ (decision making processes around EU projects) and ‘bottom up’ (mobilization to benefit EU funds). Specifically, this paper analyses existing forms of interactions between actors within two European cities: Krakow (from a new member state) and Glasgow (from an old member state).
EN
The aim of the current research is to study the effects of economic integration within the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (CCASG) and its influence on the trade within the region as well as with other countries. The trade development of member countries of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf was analysed with the help of gravitation model in the context of the existing agreements of the trading preferences on the Middle East and North Africa. It was proved that establishment of CCASG made extremely positive influence on the development of the intraregional trade. It was also discovered that economic integration of the CCASG members showed rather the effect of trade creation than the effect of trade diversion. Signing of free trading agreement between the CCASG and the EU and between the CCASG and the USA had also positive results.
PL
Celem badania jest analiza skutków integracji gospodarczej w ramach Rady Współpracy Zatoki Perskiej (RWZP) i jej wpływu na handel wewnątrz regionu i z krajami trzecimi. Korzystając z modelu grawitacyjnego, przeanalizowano rozwój handlu Rady Współpracy Państw Arabskich Zatoki Perskiej w kontekście istniejących umów dotyczących preferencji handlowych na Bliskim Wschodzie i w Afryce Północnej. Udowodniono, że powstanie RWZP miało bardzo pozytywny wpływ na rozwój handlu wewnątrzregionalnego. Stwierdzono również, że integracja gospodarcza państw członkowskich RWZP pokazuje skutek kreacji, a nie odrzucenia handlu. Bardzo pozytywny wpływ miało podpisanie umów o wolnym handlu między RWZP i UE oraz między RWZP i USA.
RU
Целью исследования было изучение эффектов экономической интеграции в границах Совета сотрудничества арабских государств Персидского залива (ССАГПЗ) и его влияние на торговлю внутри региона и с третьими странами. При помощи гравитационной модели проанализировали развитие торговли Совета сотрудничества арабских государств Персидского залива в контексте существующих соглашений о торговых преференциях на Ближнем Востоке и в Северной Африке. Доказано, что создание ССАГПЗ имело весомое позитивное влияние на развитие внутрирегиональной торговли. Также было выявлено, что экономическая интеграция стран-членов ССАГПЗ демонстрирует эффект создания, а не эффект отвержения торговли. Заметное позитивное влияние имело подписание соглашений о свободной торговле между ССАГПЗ и ЕС и между ССАГПЗ и США.
PL
Bezpieczeństwo ekonomiczne istotnie decyduje o niezakłóconym funkcjonowaniu gospodarki oraz jej rozwoju. Jego skuteczne i efektywne kształtowanie zależy od racjonalnego rozpoznania i wykorzystania wielu zmiennych w czasie i przestrzeni. Można je sklasyfikować jako czynniki zewnętrzne i wewnętrzne. Jako istotne uwarunkowania zewnętrzne bezpieczeństwa ekonomicznego należy uznać aktywny udział w procesach globalizacji i integracji gospodarczej, przepływy kapitału zagranicznego oraz konsekwencje nadmiernych nierówności na świecie. Z licznych uwarunkowań wewnętrznych szczególnie silne jest oddziaływanie poziomu rozwoju ekonomicznego i jego dynamika, równowaga ekonomiczna i finansowa oraz przejawy ich braku, nieuzasadnione zróżnicowanie dochodów i majątku, rozbudowana szara strefa, korupcja oraz charakter polityki społeczno-gospodarczej. Analizy wpływu determinant bezpieczeństwa ekonomicznego na jego poziom i charakter wykazały, że bezpieczeństwo ekonomiczne Polski utrwaliło się na średnim europejskim poziomie. Postulowane i oczekiwane umocnienie bezpieczeństwa ekonomicznego wymaga aktywnego oddziaływania na uwarunkowania jego kształtowania i będzie w najbliższych latach kształtowane w warunkach znacznego ryzyka i niepewności.
EN
Economic security substantially decides an uninterrupted functioning of economy and its development. Its efficient and effective formation depends on the rational recognition and use of many variables over time and in space. They may be classified as external and internal factors. As important external determinants of economic security should be considered an active participation in the processes of globalisation and economic integration, foreign capital flows, and consequences of excessive imbalances in the world. In the numerous internal determinants particularly strong are the impact of the level of economic development and its dynamics, economic and financial equilibrium as well as symptoms of lack thereof, unreasonable differentiation of incomes and assets, enlarged grey area, corruption, and the nature of socioeconomic policy. Analyses of the impact of determinants of economic security on its level and nature have shown that Poland’s economic security has retained at the average European level. The postulated and expected reinforcement of economic security requires an active influencing the determinants of formation thereof and will be shaped in the years to come under the conditions of considerable risk and uncertainty.
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