Wyniki wyszukiwania - Biblioteka Nauki

1

Rola nekropolii w rozwoju urbanistycznym Lublina od czasów lokacji miasta do 1945 roku

100%

Przesmycka N.

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tom Z. 21

59-67

PL

W artykule omówiono historyczne rozmieszczenie zorganizowanych miejsc pochówku na terenie Lublina, które wyznaczano, kierując się różnymi względami. Usytuowanie cmentarzy nie było przypadkowe, lecz wynikało ze świadomie podejmowanych decyzji władz miasta i wpływało na kierunki rozwoju poszczególnych jego rejonów. Cmentarze jako element kompozycji urbanistycznej stanowiły zawsze szczególny rodzaj przestrzeni miejskiej, pełnej symboliki i duchowości. Ich niezmienność, powiększenie, zmiana kształtu, czy występujące w historii epizody zniszczenia lub likwidacji były procesami nacechowanymi o wiele większym znaczeniem, niż w przypadku każdej innej przestrzeni publicznej.

EN

The paper deals with the history and problem of location of Lublin's cemeteries, which was the result of the decisions taken by the city's authorities. Locations of burial sites were caused by many factors and influenced the directions of the development of some regions of the city. Cemeteries as a part of urban composition always were a special kind of urban space, full of symbolism and spirituality.

2

Aspekty krajobrazowe cmentarzy w różnych kręgach kulturowo-religijnych

100%

Myga-Piątek U. , Plit J.

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2013

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tom nr 22

11-29

PL

Obecność i wygląd cmentarzy w krajobrazie są związane z interpretacją zjawiska śmierci. W różnych kulturach i cywilizacjach, interpretacje te są krańcowo różne, a nawet szokujące w stosunku do tych, do których przywykliśmy w cywilizacji zachodniej. Miejsce lokalizacji cmentarzy, wygląd grobowców, kurhanów świadczy o znaczeniu, jakie przypisuje się w danej kulturze śmierci, oddawaniu kultu zmarłym i wierze w życie pozagrobowe. Lokalizacja cmentarzy, sposób ich rozplanowania i urządzenia, zależy od doktryny religijnej, lokalnych warunków środowiska przyrodniczego a także czynników prawnych, historyczno-politycznych, społecznych i finansowych. Artykuł prezentuje, z geograficznego punktu widzenia krajobrazową rolę cmentarzy; analizuje nekropolie pod kątem lokalizacji przestrzennej i zróżnicowania materiałów, z których budowane są nagrobki. Artykuł prezentuje formy i obrzędy pochówku i ich związek z warunkami środowiska geograficznego i z rozmieszczeniem kręgów kulturowo-religijnych.

EN

Occurrence and appearance of cemeteries in landscape are directly related to the way the phenomenon of death is interpreted. Interpretations may extremely vary between cultures and civilizations and may even be shocking when compared to the ones we are accustomed to in the western civilization. Location of cemeteries, as well as the look of tombs and barrows, prove the importance of death, worship of the dead and belief in afterlife in each culture. Choice of terrain for a cemetery, its layout and arrangement depend on the religious doctrine and local environmental conditions, as well as legal, historical-political, social and financial factors. The article presents the landscape role of cemeteries from the geographic point of view; it analyses necropoleis in terms of their spatial location and diversity of materials used for gravestones. The authors also attempts to find out how burial forms and rituals are related to geographic conditions and location of cultural-religious circles.

3

Stanowisko władz komunistycznych w latach siedemdziesiątych XX wieku... w zakresie cmentarnictwa wyznaniowego i komunalnego

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Rogowska B.

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nr 13

75-93

EN

The government of the People’s Republic of Poland’s policy in the 1970s. on the religious and communal cemeteries was in accordance with the sectoral religious policy and laicization policy. It was dependent on the acquired political strategy and the law ensuring the safety and good health of the citizens. There had been many difficulties in the field of popularization of secular funeral rites. Despite developing a secular funeral ceremony and preparing a technical infrastructure there was one constant barrier: common religiosity of the people. It can be said that the complexity of the secularization processes, rooted religious traditions, and weakly developed services in the range of secular rituals were the most important difficulties.

4

Wpływy ruskie we władztwie Piastów X-XI w. w kontekście badań interdyscyplinarnych nad wschodnią Wielkopolską i Kujawami

84%

Danielewski M.

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nr 2 (25)

109-129

EN

This paper discusses the problem of Polish-Ruthenian contacts at an early stage of the Piast realm (from the rule of Mieszko I to the end of Mieszko II’s rule), focusing on the significance of written sources. It also looks at place names, possibly related to the Ruthenian population, and archaeological sources.

5

Roztoczańskie cmentarze – sacrum i pomniki przeszłości regionu w kontekście ich wykorzystania w turystyce krajoznawczej

84%

Martyn W.

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nr 7

195-214

PL

W artykule scharakteryzowano i oceniono stan sacrum na wybranych cmentarzach roztoczańskich traktowanych jako pomniki przeszłości regionu. Analizę przeprowadzono w kontekście możliwości ich wykorzystania w turystyce krajoznawczej. Oceniono charakterystyczne dla regionu nekropolie należące do wyznawców religii: grekokatolickiej, prawosławnej, rzymskokatolickiej, żydowskiej i ewangelickiej. Uwzględniono w analizie również nekropolie wojenne oraz symboliczne. Stwierdzono, że najbardziej obecne jest sacrum na cmentarzach wojennych i symbolicznych. Wynika to z faktu, że są objęte mecenatem państwa i w dzisiejszych czasach zamknięte dla pochówków. Aktualny wyraz architektoniczny uzyskały one najczęściej w wyniku konkursów. W ich przypadkach wygląd podporządkowany jest specjalnym przepisom np. decydującym o wyglądzie cmentarza wojennego. W analizach stwierdzono, że sacrum najbardziej zagrożone jest na cmentarzu rzymskokatolickim. Wynika to z racji jego otwartości i ograniczonej interwencji administratora cmentarza w stan jego współczesnej architektury i zieleni. Zdecydowanie najgorzej oceniono sacrum w odniesieniu do cmentarzy innych wyznań niż katolickie. Znaczna część cmentarzy szczególnie grekokatolickich, oraz żydowskich zatracają sacrum przy bierności miejscowych władz administracyjnych i gmin wyznaniowych.

EN

The article carried out characteristics and assessed the status of sacrum in selected cemeteries of Roztocze region treated as monuments of the past in the context of the possibility of their use in tourism and sightseeing. We analyzed the characteristics of this region’s cemeteries belonging to the Greek Catholic, Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Jewish and Protestant religion followers. Their genesis, war and symbolism were taken into account in the analysis. It was clear that sacrum was best preserved at war and symbolic cemeteries. It is due to the fact that they remain under the patronage of the state and burials no longer take place there. Their current architectural state was achieved as a result of competitions, or through the implementation of the rules governing the appearance of war a cemetery. At the same time, the sacred status appears to be threatened the most at the Roman Catholic cemeteries. Such a situation takes place as a result of a few factors. First of all, the cemetery is open; second of all, there is not much intervention into landscape architecture of the place by the administrator of cemetery.

6

Zgliczyn Pobodzy. Niepozorna nekropola z północnego Mazowsza

84%

Szela A.

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nr 69

121-147

EN

The village of Zgliczyn Pobodzy is situated on a small plateau located between the backwaters of the Wkra and Mławka Rivers. The site itself lies north of the Wkra, near a small creek called Luta that flows into it (Fig. 1). First discoveries there were made already in the 1930s, when “pottery kilns” – in reality probably cremation graves containing clay vessels – were unearthed. In 1945, a cremation grave with a bronze bucket and skillet was uncovered in the course of planting fruit trees. In the years 1977–1979, the Museum of Ziemia Zawkrzeńska in Mława carried out archaeological excavations. At that time, an area of 825 square meters was explored, revealing 25 archaeological features. The analysis of the features discovered in Zgliczyn Pobodzy showed that 13 of them are cremation pit graves, two are urn graves and one is an inhumation grave. In addition, a triangular stone paving, a kiln for burning lime and small pits of undefined function were discovered at the site (Fig. 16). In most cases, pottery constituted the only grave deposit. Only graves 3 and 12 contained fragments of antler combs, while two atypical bronze brooches combining features of brooches with covered springs and brooches of series 1 group V were found in grave 10, which also contained a clay spindle whorl. In stark contrast to the aforementioned features, grave A, discovered in 1945, contained a bucket type Eggers 18 and a skillet type Eggers 131. A brooch of the type A.110 but equipped with a stop plate was found inside the bucket (Fig. 2). The bucket, which served as a cinerary urn, was covered with a clay bowl. The presence of the bucket type Eggers 18 together with the brooch type A.110 proves the significant longevity of Roman imports in the area of Barbaricum. Grave 4 is unique among other discoveries (Fig. 6–9). It was an inhumation burial placed in a stone chamber. Grave deposits consisted of a bronze skillet type Eggers 131, a set of 24 glass counters (six of each colour: white, yellow, celadon and black-blue), a pair of bronze terminals of drinking horns type C.5, bronze belt buckle type D2, bronze strap-end, two bronze chair-shaped spurs type Jahn 35, two bronze brooches – a trumpet brooch of the variant Liana 1 and a brooch type A.110 – and three clay vessels, one of which is an imitation of a glass vessel. This grave should be considered as a princely burial of the type Lubieszewo, although due to the presence of the fibula type A.110 it should be dated to the stage B2a of the Roman Period. Currently, it is one of the youngest graves of the type Lubieszewo, and also the only burial of this kind located east of the Vistula. As a result of the excavations carried out in the 1970s, only a small part of the site was explored. It is currently impossible to determine the size of the cemetery or establish its chronology. Due to the importance of the site and severe modern damage it suffered, the work at the site has been resumed in 2018

7

Głos tradycji. Cmentarzysko z okresu wpływów rzymskich w Wyszomierzu Wielkim, pow. zambrowski

84%

Rakowski T.

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tom LXXI

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nr 71

319-353

EN

The site at Wyszomierz Wielki, Zambrów County, is located on the border of the Northern Mazovian Lowland and North Podlasie Lowland in NE Poland. A cemetery from the Roman Period was situated at the edge of a vast wet meadow north-west of the village and south of a kame-moraine forming the characteristic landscape of this area – a cluster of longitudinal elevations called Czerwony Bór (Fig. 1). Rescue excavations at the site took place in 2015 during works preceding the expansion of the European route E67, the so-called Via Baltica (Fig. 2). The cemetery is interesting and unusual in many ways. It was located not on the top of the local elevation, which is common for Mazovian cemeteries from that period, but on a slope of a smaller nearby hill (Fig. 1, 3). It is also surprisingly small – 12 cremation graves, located on the NE-SW line, with a length of about 30 m, were discovered there. Some of the graves seem to be paired (features 138 and 139, 109A and 109B, 236 and 108, and 110 and 111) (Fig. 21:A). Eleven graves, including those with Almgren 41 type brooches (Fig. 4:1, 9:5.6, 10:5.6, 11:3.4, 13:1–4), one-layer combs of the Thomas AI type and antler pins (Fig. 4:3, 9:2, 10:1.9, 11:5), should be dated to phase B2/C1–C1a, i.e. the oldest horizon of the Wielbark Culture in Mazovia and Podlachia. The lack of inhumation burials is also characteristic of this initial phase, which corresponds to the historical migration of the Gothic tribes. The grave goods and results of anthropological bone analysis allow us to conclude that a man (feature 139) and women (features 109A, 111, 227 and 228, possibly also features 108 and 235) were probably buried there; feature 235 also contained the bones of a newborn, which may suggest the burial of a woman who died in childbirth. A several-year-old child was buried separately, in feature 229. The sex of the deceased from three graves (features 138, 109B and 236) cannot be determined (Fig. 21:B). The most interesting feature is the richly furnished grave of a warrior, who died at the age of about 40 (feature 110) (Fig. 5–8). Iron shield fittings, including a ritually destroyed boss with a blunt spike of type Jahn 7a and an iron grip with simple, undefined plates of type Jahn 9/Zieling V2 from the 5th and 6th group of armaments according to K. Godłowski and dated to phase B2/C1–C1a, were found in the grave. The most interesting elements of weaponry, with Scandinavian references, are a spearhead with the blade constricted in the middle, corresponding to spearheads of type 6 from a bog deposit from Illerup, Jutland, and a bent javelin head with large, asymmetrical barbs, whose curved ends point towards the socket, corresponding to type 8 of spearheads from Illerup, i.e. of the Scandinavian Simris type. In the areas north of the Baltic Sea, both of these types are dated to phase C1. Fragments of two rings made of deer antlers and delicate trough-shaped fittings made of copper alloy, probably from the edge of a decorative waist belt, are the only decorations and dress accessories found in the grave (Fig. 7:15–18). Two glass counters (Fig. 7:13.14, 15:8.9), and possibly traces of the third one (Fig. 7:10) are probably all that remains of a larger set, while a few iron fittings are most likely parts of a wooden folding game board. The ring and handle were probably used to open and close the board, while two corner fittings must have strengthened its edges (Fig. 7:7.10–12, 15:5). Similar objects, in addition to a full (?) set of counters, were found in the late Roman grave 41 from Simris in Scania, where a warrior was also buried (Fig. 16:1.2)62. Although no board hinges, as the ones known from the ‘Doctor’s grave’ from Stanway, SE England (Fig. 16:4–8), dating to the middle of the 1st century CE64, dating to the middle of the 1st century CE, were found in the grave from Wyszomierz Wielki, it seems that the two ornamental iron fittings attached with three rivets each could have fastened a leather belt that acted as such a hinge (Fig. 7:8.9, 15:4). This is supported by the shape and width of the fittings, and by the number of rivets, suggesting that they pressed against some not preserved element. Carefully bent nails of the handle, corner fittings and alleged hinges may indicate that the board formed a kind of a ‘container’ for counters when folded (Fig. 17). Fragments of an imported vessel of the terra sigillata type were also found in the grave (Fig. 8:19,15:6.7). The vessel that served as a cinerary urn (Fig. 8:20, 13:5) was wheel-made, i.e. made using a technique that was only just beginning to come into use in the lands north of the Carpathians in phase B2/C1–C1a93.95.96. The burial from feature 110 shows features characteristic of the Przeworsk Culture – primarily, the set of ritually destroyed weapons, although it should be noted that both spearheads are not typical of this culture 72.73.80. In phase B2/C1-C1a, only relicts of the settlement of the Przeworsk Culture, identified with the ‘Vandal’ peoples, were present in right-bank Mazovia, and the population of this culture had been replaced by the people of the Wielbark Culture, identified with the ‘Gothic’ tribes. It is then possible – as the other graves from this cemetery, undoubtedly attributed to the Wielbark Culture, seem to indicate – that it is a rare case of a burial with a weapon of a ‘Gothic’ warrior of this particular culture. Although Wielbark weaponry is very poorly known, it has Scandinavian references in the Late Roman Period123. The man buried in this grave, most likely a member of the local elite, must have been affiliated with an older cultural tradition. What is more, this tradition still had to be legible and acceptable for the people organising funerary rituals. Grave 110 from Wyszomierz Wielki is another of the burials from the end of the Early Roman/beginning of the Late Roman Period, combining features of the Przeworsk and Wielbark Cultures, that are being discovered more and more often in eastern Mazovia and Podlachia128–130 and constitute an important contribution to the study of the processes of cultural (and political) change that took place in Barbaricum during this turbulent period.

8

„Erstes Ende” der Przeworsk-Kultur im Lublinerland The „first end” of Przeworsk culture in the Lublin region

67%

Kokowski A.

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tom LIV

129-158

DE

Zusammenfassung: Während der Stufe B2/C1-C1a brachen die Siedlungsstrukturen der Przeworsk-Kultur in der Lublinerlandes zusammen. Bei der Untersuchung der Zeit der Errichtung von Gräberfelder und Siedlungen und der Dauer ihrer Nutzung wurde gezeigt, dass es in drei unterschiedlichen Subregionen (Nordwest, West und Ost – siehe Karten) grundlegende Unterschiede gibt. Sie haben Bedingungen, die durch die Zugänglichkeit der Gebiete bestimmt sind, die in der vorrömischen Eisenzeit von der Czarniczyn-Gruppe besetzt waren, und durch das Tempo der Wielbark-Kultur in der Römischen Kaiserzeit. Die am längsten andauernde Besiedlung fand in der Subregion I (A2-B2/C1-C1a) statt. In der Subregion II hat es einen Beginn zu Beginn der Stufe B2 (möglicherweise im späten B1) und dauerte bis zur Stufe B2/C1-C1. In der Subregion III tritt die Przeworsk-Kultur nach einer in die jüngere vorrömische Eisenzeit fallenden Episode der Durchdringung der Bevölkerung der Przeworsk-Kultur in den Stufen B2/C1-C1 auf. Bei der Untersuchung der Deponierung römischer Münzen können wir annehmen, dass sie, wahrscheinlich im Hinblick auf die Bedrohung durch die umherziehenden Goten, zwischen 193 und 218 n. Chr. (Wahrscheinlich kurz nach dieser Zeit) versteckt waren, da das jüngste Datum die jüngste Münze aus der Hortfund in Spiczyn angibt.

EN

The downfall of the settlement structure of Przeworsk culture in the Lublin region happened during chronological phases B2/C1-C1a. In course of the research concerning the time of formation of cemeteries, settlements and their duration of use, it was proved, that each of three settlement regions (north-western, western and eastern – see at the maps) displays certain unique features. Those differences are motivated by the accessibility of the Czerniczyn group in the pre-Roman period and the speed of Wielbark culture spread in the Roman period. The most long-term duration of the settlement was recorded in subregion I (A2-B2/C1-C1a). In subregion II it begins with phase B2 (possibly – end of phase B1) and lasts until the phase B2/C1-C1. In subregion III, after the episode of Przeworsk culture influx, that happened in the younger pre-Roman Period, Przeworsk culture appears in phases B2/C1-C1. The research of hoards of Roman coins allows us to suppose, that they were deposited in times of danger provoked by the migration of Goths in the years 193-218 A.D. (supposedly shortly after those events), as the latter date is indicated on the coin found in hoard from Spiczyn.

9

Pochówek w Galicji. Wybrane zagadnienia administracyjno-prawne. Część I

67%

Kotliński T. J.

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tom 23

229-253

EN

The second half of 18th century brought the era of change in existing burial procedures in many European countries, where corpses were buried in churches and adjacent cemeteries. The changes were implemented due to health related aspects, but also through limited burial capabilities within the town administrative borders. In Austria, the decision to move cemeteries outside the town administrative borders, was made by Emperor Franz Joseph II before the end of 1783. As a consequence, numerous new cemeteries were commonly established within the territory of the State, including Galicia, many of which exist to the present day. Concurrently with time, there were a number of legal acts issued in Austria, that precisely governed issues relating to organization of cemeteries and funerals. The study presents selected legal and administrative solutions, being in force throughout the years on the territory of Habsburg Monarchy in the broadly understood area of cemetery regulations. The legal acts directly relating to and only being in force in Galicia were also included in the study. Thus, in the subsequent parts of the study, the specific issues related to establishing new cemeteries outside the town administrative borders, enlarging their areas, closing them and legal status were presented. The study presents the legal regulations concerning the transportation of the corpse, rules of organizing burials and related fees. Concurrently, the special attention was drawn to specific forms of burials, which were in force during cholera epidemic, occurring in Galicia. It is well worth mentioning, that many solutions of cemetery law implemented during Galician times were still biding in Reborn Poland and had direct influence not only on the modern appearance of the cemeteries established during that time, but also on certain burial practices.

PL

Druga połowa XVIII w. to okres odchodzenia w wielu państwach europejskich od dotychczasowych zasad pochówku, opartych na grzebaniu zwłok w kościołach i na cmentarzach zlokalizowanych w ich bezpośrednim sąsiedztwie. Dokonywane zmiany motywowane były przede wszystkim względami zdrowotnymi, ale również ograniczonymi możliwościami pochówków w obrębie samych miast. W przypadku Austrii decyzja o przeniesieniu cmentarzy poza obręb miejscowości podjęta została przez cesarza Józefa II końcem 1783 r. Jej konsekwencją było niemal powszechne zakładanie na terenie państwa, w tym także w Galicji, nowych cmentarzy, z których część funkcjonuje do dziś. Jednocześnie w Austrii z biegiem kolejnych lat wydawano szereg aktów prawnych, które szczegółowo regulowały kwestie związane z organizacją cmentarzy i pogrzebów. W opracowaniu przedstawiono wybrane rozwiązania prawne i administracyjne, które na przestrzeni lat obowiązywały w monarchii habsburskiej w zakresie szeroko rozumianego prawa cmentarnego. Uwzględniono przy tym również te akty prawne, które bezpośrednio dotyczyły Galicji i tylko w niej były stosowane. Tym samym w kolejnych rozdziałach przedstawiono w szczególności zagadnienia związane z zakładaniem nowych cmentarzy poza obrębem miejscowości, poszerzania ich terenu, likwidowania oraz ich statusu prawnego. Opracowanie przedstawia także regulacje prawne w zakresie przewożenia zwłok, zasad, na jakich organizowano pogrzeby, i pobieranych od tego obrzędu opłat. Przy okazji zwrócona została uwaga na szczególne formy pochówku, które obowiązywały choćby w przypadku pojawiających się w Galicji epidemii cholery. Warto przy tym nadmienić, że wiele z przyjętych w okresie galicyjskim rozwiązań z zakresu prawa cmentarnego obowiązywało jeszcze w odrodzonej Polsce i miało bezpośredni wpływ nie tylko na współczesny wygląd cmentarzy założonych w tamtym okresie, ale też na pewne zwyczaje pogrzebowe.

10

Nowe materiały z okresu wpływów rzymskich z Osówki, pow. lubelski

67%

Kuzioła A.

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tom LXXI

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nr 71

384-388

EN

Until now, Osówka (Fig. 1) has been known from the scant mention by Stefan Nosek who described an accidentally discovered grave of the Przeworsk Culture. In 1994, attempts were made to localise the site, but they proved unsuccessful. The breakthrough came in 2008 thanks to three bronze brooches that were handed over to Ass. Prof. Piotr Łuczkiewicz from the Institute of Archaeology at Maria Curie-Skłodowska University. In the same year, a local site inspection was carried out to further verify the find. During exploration of the site, several fragments of pottery were found, including possibly shards of Przeworsk Culture vessels. The brooches from Osówka were typologically identified as a late form of the Almgren 41 type, an Almgren 96 type, and a provincial Roman knee brooch of the Almgren 247 type. Almgren 41 brooches are widespread in Wielbark Culture areas and much less common in Przeworsk Culture areas. Such brooches are traditionally dated to the late stage of phase B2 and above all to phases B2/C1 or B2/C1–C1a. Based on size, the Osówka copy (Fig. 2:a) was determined as type X1 according to the classification proposed by Jan Schuster. This is an interregional form mostly found in female burials. Almgren 96 brooches (Fig. 2:b) are typical of the Wielbark Culture, however, in much smaller numbers they also appear in the Przeworsk Culture area. The type is the guiding form of the B2/C1 phase. The third brooch (Fig. 2:c), having a semi-circular head plate ornamented with a so-called wolf teeth pattern should be assigned to type 13D after Werner Jobst or to variant 3.12.1 according to the classification by Emilie Riha. These types of brooches are characteristic of the Danube and Rhine provinces of the Roman Empire where were in use mostly in the 2nd and 3rd century CE. Osówka brooches confirm that that the site was a Roman Period cemetery. The grave published by Stefan Nosek proves that in phase B2 it was used by a local Przeworsk community. Three brooches found in 2008 are evidence that the cemetery remained in use in phase B2/C1. However, it is very difficult to determine its cultural affiliation in this phase. In eastern Poland (i.e. right-bank Mazovia, Podlachia, and the Lublin Region) at the turn of the early and late Roman Period, the current Przeworsk settlement was gradually replaced by the Wielbark settlement.

11

Produkcja późnych typów bransolet wężowatych na przykładzie znalezisk z cmentarzyska w Weklicach, stan. 7, pow. elbląski

67%

Natuniewicz-Sekuła M. , Strobin J.

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tom LXXI

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nr 71

161-187

EN

The subject of this study is the technology of manufacture of late forms of silver shield-headed bracelets. The analysis is based on the bracelets from the Wielbark Culture cemetery at Weklice, Elbląg County, in N Poland (Fig. 1–3). They correspond to Blume III or Wójcik IVB and V types, and appear in single- and double-spiral variants. They are dated to the beginning of the Late Roman Period. The majority of such bracelets come from cemeteries located along the shores of the former bay of the Vistula Lagoon, whose remnant is present-day Drużno Lake. In antiquity, richly ornamented snake-headed bracelets with regular, strap and multi-spiral bodies were a distinctive type of women’s accessories. They are known from the Hellenistic Period (Fig. 4). They were also manufactured in goldsmith’s workshops of the Roman Empire (Fig. 5–7). In Roman goldsmithing, they were in fashion in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE; interest declined at the beginning of the 3rd century. The technique used (forging), the similarity of shapes and the regularity of profiles indicate that matrices or dies (swages) were used in their manufacture. The best-known example of blacksmithing and goldsmithing tools used to make ornaments utilising this method is the deposit from Daorson (BIH), the former capital of Illyria (Z. Marić 1979). Similar technology was used to craft the Roman snake-bracelets and snake-rings from the jeweller’s hoard from Snettisham, Norfolk (GB), dating to the mid-2nd century CE (C. Johns 1997). It is assumed that barbarian goldsmith’s workshops used raw materials imported from the Roman Empire. So far, no traces of exploitation and processing of non-ferrous metal ores in the Roman period have been recorded in Poland, allowing a conclusion that local workshops melted down Roman imports. The share of silver in the denarii varied and generally decreased as a result of successive reforms introduced by ruling emperors. However, metallurgical analyses (Table 1) show that shield-headed bracelets were made from high-grade raw material containing about 92–97% Ag, which excludes the possibility that the alloys were created by melting coins with varied silver content, e.g. fourrées. No archaeological sources confirm that the ‘barbarians’ had the ability to refine precious metals. Therefore, the raw material probably came from scrap vessels made of alloys containing 92–97% Ag. Given the enormous practical knowledge of goldsmiths of that time, the metal they had available was probably selected with respect to alloy composition. Raw material could also have been obtained by importing bars containing 94–95% Ag; however, such finds (known mainly from the frontier areas of the Roman Empire) date only to the 3rd and 4th century (K. Painter 1981). The fragments of cups discovered at the cemetery of the Wielbark Culture in Czarnówko, Lębork County, are an indication that high-grade silver from Roman vessels was used in Pomerania in the Roman Period. Metallurgical analyses show that they were made of alloys containing 96–99% Ag (J. Schuster 2018). In recreating the technology of manufacture of the bracelets in question, we also used our own observations concerning the assessment of alloy quality. Raw material was forged into long strips (up to 25 cm in length in the case of single-spiral forms, and up to 50 cm in length in the case of double-spiral forms) on which delamination and chipping could occur. They were the result of both the heterogeneity of silver and errors made during forging and are often still visible on final products (Fig. 8). This was possible due to the reduced hardness and resulting ductility of high-grade silver alloys with only a few percent of copper added. A common way of making the basic form of metal objects, both in Roman and ‘barbarian’ craftsmanship, was forging. Dies were used to create ornaments of repetitive shapes. They were usually two-piece sets (Fig. 9), with a top and bottom swage. The technique involves placing a heated rod or strip between the parts of a die and forging while shifting it until a suitable profile is obtained. Dies were basic elements of a blacksmith’s shop (Fig. 10, 11); in goldsmith’s workshops, a simplified version consisting of only the bottom swage was used. The technological properties of the alloys required the ‘cold’ forging method, during which the material changed to a fine-crystalline structure and hardened. The workpiece was occasionally soaked to recrystallise and plasticise the alloy. The use of this technology in barbarian metalwork is confirmed by the find of an anvil with ‘nail headers’ from Vimose on the island of Funen (DK), with a negative impression of a profile for forging on its underside (Fig. 12, 13). The bows of the Weklice bracelets were also forged in the manner described. Based on precise measurements, it can even be assumed that almost identical forming swages, with a negative impression of the design of approx. 10.5 mm in width, were used. Slight differences in shape may result from the finishing treatment of an already forged bracelet (Fig. 14). Creation of a shield-headed bracelet was time-consuming work, requiring a lot of knowledge and skill. First, a silver bar was cast, which was then forged into a long strip. Forging a semi-finished product in a swage required the involvement of two people and excellent work organisation. The use of a metal stamp, shaped in the outline of the profile on the swage, made it possible to obtain a deep relief (Fig. 15). Observation of the undersides of bases and heads of snake bracelets indicates that they were formed slightly differently. The underside of the heads shows traces of irregular impacts (Fig. 16:1–3), which indicates that these parts were made using the free forging technique. Such a bracelet creation process was applied in the reconstruction presented here, with the body forged on a swage, and the heads hammered on a wooden and lead pad (Fig. 17, 18). Forged heads of the original Weklice bracelets are irregular in shape, and even the subsequent application of engraved and punched ornaments on the face did not fully mask this asymmetry. Free forging and die forging were the initial techniques that made it possible create a certain section of a decoration. Bracelets forged in this manner have uneven face surfaces. The next step was to even and refine the body by smoothing and grinding, first with a file and then with grindstones. To smooth the surface of ornaments made of soft alloys, a flat iron burin or a small chisel with a wide, hardened blade could also be used. Traces of such treatments in the form of scratched, parallel lines are visible on the analysed examples of Weklice bracelets. The edge of a polygonal file was used to divide the heads and collars and make grooves accentuating raised ridges (Fig. 19:1.2). An ornament in the form of two main motifs made with punches, i.e. incised lines imitating a twisted or beaded wire and an alternately stippled snake-zigzag (Fig. 19, 20), was later applied on the face surfaces of the bracelets. During these operations, washers were used to prevent damage to the thin sheet metal. A tool with flat blade, a type of small chisel, was commonly used (Fig. 19:3.4). Chasers with a curved undercut in the blade and pronounced, lateral teeth, which gave a clear semi-circular imprint, were rarely used. Usually, such a punch would leave a distinct mark of fangs on the sides (Fig. 19:5). Oblique, parallel lines imitating twisted wires were made with similar punches in imitation of beaded wires. In the case of the former, a better effect was achieved using a chisel with a semi-circular notch in the blade and thickened teeth on the sides. The stamped pattern had the shape of an oblique, slightly S-shaped line (Fig. 19:6). Another variant of this ornamentation consisted of incised ridges separated with an undecorated band (Fig. 19:7). The decorative snake (zigzag) motif was made by punching regular points on alternate sides of a raised ridge (Fig. 19:8.9). The final step was polishing, giving the decoration a shine. In ancient times, gold and silver jewellery was commonly polished with semi-precious stones. Polishers made of iron were also used, providing decorations made of silver, gold and even tin alloys with a perfect shine (Fig. 21). Another method of finishing ornaments was patination. In antiquity, blackening of silver products was fashionable and was probably also used by barbarian communities. In the case of the described shield-headed bracelets with flatly displayed patterns, it was even advisable to leave the blackened depressions in the stamped ornaments, as it intensified – against the background of the polished smooth surface – the impression of the ornament’s three-dimensionality (Fig. 22). The appearance of shield-headed bracelets in the Wielbark Culture was undoubtedly the effect of contacts between the local communities and the Roman Empire. The result of these contacts was a huge transfer of technical knowledge, crafting skills and aesthetic concepts, among others. The ancient, naturalistic snake motif, fashionable and common in the 1st and 2nd century CE, was adapted and stylistically transformed into its own ‘barbarian’ design. This phenomenon intensified in the second half of the 2nd century and the early 3rd century. The bracelets from Weklice described here were probably made in a local blacksmith/goldsmith workshop to the order of elites living in the settlement clusters of the Wielbark Culture, which stretched around the shores of the then bay of the Vistula Lagoon. These workshops based their manufacturing on their own technological tradition, preferring blacksmithing techniques, including the use of dies with elaborate profiles. This phenomenon can be observed not only in the metalwork of the Wielbark Culture, but also in other Germanic societies living in the south-western regions of the Baltic Sea coast.

12

Axes from Transylvania during the 7th–8th centuries AD

67%

Călin C.

|

tom LII

13

Barrow cemeteries in the Neolithic of north-west Europe. The case of Western Mecklenburg (Germany)

59%

Behrens A. , Darvill T.

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tom 17

125-162

PL

Neolityczne grobowce w Europie Północno-Zachodniej występują w postaci pojedynczych nasypów i skupisk kurhanów. W pracy przedyskutowano ich podstawowe cechy z uwzględnieniem dostępu do głównej komory i jej lokalizacji wewnątrz nasypów. W zachodniej Meklemburgii zarejestrowano 238 grobowców megalitycznych, które sklasyfikowano pod względem liczby konstrukcji na stanowisku oraz porównano pod względem rozprzestrzenienia. Opisano przykłady oraz możliwe przyczyny pojawienia się cmentarzysk z wieloma konstrukcjami, rozważane na tle organizacji społecznej i relacji do elementów krajobrazu.

EN

Neolithic funerary monuments across north-west Europe are considered as cemeteries and here divided into two types: single-mound cemeteries, and multi-mound cemeteries. Their general characteristics are discussed in relation to models of access to the internal chambers, and the distribution of chambers within their cover-mounds. The 238 megalithic tombs recorded in Western Mecklenburg are classified according to whether they are single-mound cemeteries or components of multi-mound cemeteries, and the distributions compared. Examples and case studies are described, and possible understandings of the emergence of multi-mound cemeteries are considered in relation to social organization and connections with the landscape.