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1

Musta mere ranniku eesti asunikud malaaria meelevallas

100%

Jürgenson A.

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tom 85

61-94

EN

At the end of the 19th century, Estonian settlers encountered malaria in the Volga region and Siberia, but outbreaks with the most serious consequences hit Estonians in the Black Sea coastal region of the Caucasus. The article looks at the first contact of the local Estonians with malaria, how the disease affected migrations and settlement activities, what the Estonians’ descriptions of the disease were, what the causes of the disease were believed to be, how malaria was treated, and what preventive measures were used against the disease. Although malaria had also been present in many parts of Europe in earlier centuries, it had almost disappeared in the second half of the 19th century due to improved hygiene and sanitation. Europeans encountered malaria mainly in colonial countries, and so did Estonians. While in Estonia there were still several outbreaks of malaria in the first half of the 19th century, it was no longer a problem in the second half of the century. Now, Estonians came into contact with malaria mainly abroad – in warmer and wetter regions, where Estonian men had been conscripted into military service (e.g., the Russo-Turkish War, the Crimean War; cf. the Turkish disease) or where they had emigrated and established settlements. The resettling of Estonians to the Caucasus, which took place in the last quarter of the 19th century, cannot be described without mentioning malaria. Malaria hit Estonians primarily in settlements built in coastal areas, where there were sufficiently moist conditions for the development of malaria mosquitoes. Estonian colonists fell very ill in the first years of settlement, and their mortality rates were high. Many Estonians decided to return to their homeland due to malaria. The struggle of the Estonian settlers of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus with malaria occurred at a time when science had not yet discovered either the plasmodium that causes malaria or the role of mosquitoes in the transmission of the disease. The colonial authorities had introduced quinine as an antimalarial agent, which was distributed to the settlers, including Estonians, and began to drain the land, but the mechanisms of the disease’s origin and spread were unknown. This is also reflected in the disease explanations and treatment methods that were common among Estonian settlers. Folk names and magical healing methods for malaria were brought from Estonia, and were applied in combination with methods from conventional medicine. Neither the first nor the others corresponded to the true nature of the disease. Although malaria has been familiar in Estonia as well, also as a mythological disease, the mythological aspect has not been thoroughly thematized in the material of Caucasian Estonians, which does not mean that it was unknown. Although there are no surviving legends related to malaria as a mythological disease, and malaria is not presented as a disease demon, this may be due to the choice of the medium: our knowledge of Estonians’ struggle with malaria comes from reports sent to Estonian newspapers by the settlers, but the newspapers preferred to publish rational texts – the mythological side of the malaria lore, if it was known, was not present in the articles published in the newspapers. However, some treatment techniques have been preserved that convince that malaria was also explained mythologically. The treatment methods also betray the fact that the line between rational and mythological explanations may have been blurred: both old magical treatment methods and new medications offered by conventional medicine were used. As malaria was one of the main factors hindering settlement activities in the Caucasus, which is reflected by a rather extensive return migration, it acquired an important place in the so-called founding narrative of the settlements over time. Malaria was part of the wild nature that had to be conquered in order to achieve a stable existence and future for ourselves and future generations. The cutting down of dense forests and the struggle with wild animals threatening the settlers’ households was marked by hard work, which in turn testified to the settlers’ work ethic. Malaria was also attributed to intensive work. This confirmed the self-image of Estonians, for whom hard work has an important role. Information about the discovery of the causative plasmodium of malaria at the end of the 19th century, which proved the role of mosquitoes in the spread of malaria, reached the Caucasus with a slight time lag. It especially concerns the late arrival of new knowledge among the colonists – earlier knowledge about the connection of malaria with humidity and poisonous vapours remained among Estonian settlers even in the 20th century. Based on the new knowledge, the authorities improved the previous anti-malaria measures – during the Soviet times, a certain type of fish was cultivated in the water bodies, which destroyed the mosquito larvae. Swamp drainage, anti-humidity measures in building architecture, deforestation for farmlands and eucalyptus planting were in use in the late 19th century and destroyed the breeding grounds for mosquitoes even before the connection between mosquitoes and malaria was discovered. These methods are still in use today, because malaria has not really been eradicated from the Caucasus.

2

Kaukaz Południowy w polityce Zachodu : wzrost zainteresowania

100%

Jaroszewicz M.

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tom nr 1(54)

314-322

EN

The geographical location of South Caucasus has a transit character, as there cross transport routes from the north to the south and from the east to the west Due to its strategic location and the proximity to the Caspian Sea and Central Asia, rich in energetic resources, South Caucasus has been for centuries the area of regional superpowers’ (such as Russia, Turkey or Iran) competition. The article presents the main conditions of the change in Western policy towards Caucasus, new aspects and areas of this strategy interests. The common, although not equal, policy of the West towards this region has been discussed.

3

Passing from the Upper Jurassic to the Lower Cretaceous in the Caucasus (Azerbaijan)

100%

Babayev R. , Faridi I.

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tom Vol. 4, no. 1

145-145

EN

Problem of the transition from the Upper Jurassic to the Lower Cretaceous, and the character of subdivision of this stratigraphical interval in the Caucasus, have been often the subjects of studies of Mesozoic deposits in this area. To unequivocally solve the problem, it is necessary to analyze thoroughly the data from large geological regions, especially of the Azerbaijan part of the Caucasus. At the boundary of the Jurassic and Cretaceous there occurred the Cimmerian tectonic movements that resulted often in breaks in sedimentation. Their duration was different in particular areas of this Mediterranean Fold Belt. For these reasons we present the detailed data on the geological sections in the Caucasus in Azerbaijan, including the lithological character of the deposits and their faunal content. The Azerbaijan sections are representative of large parts of the Caucasus: the South East Caucasus (north slopes of the Greater Caucasus, and north-west of the south slopes of Greater Caucasus – these latter include also adjacent regions of Georgia), and the Lesser Caucasus in particular. The character of fauna, especially of ammonites, is very similar in all the regions studied. From the paleogeographical point of view the character of deposits shows that the large reconstruction of the basins took place at the turn of Tithonian and Berriasian. The Tithonian represents the regressive tendencies, whereas the Berriasian is transgressive. These features mark well the boundary between the Jurassic and Cretaceous systems.

4

Społeczeństwo gruzińskie 30 lat po uzyskaniu niepodległości

88%

Żal K.

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nr 2(14)

145-155

EN

The following text aims to present Georgia’s geopolitical significance and its current political situation. The way the Georgian people have fought for their independence over the years. The hard work that has been done to preserve Georgian nationality and culture. Now, 30 years after independence, this nation must define a new path that it wants to follow. There are two paths to choose from: cooperation with Europe and the USA, or with Russia. Issues such as society, economy, politics and geopolitics will be discussed.

5

Intelligence cooperation between the second Republic of Poland and the Republic of Turkey. Part 1 – the 1920s.

88%

Szymanowicz A. , Yurdatapan A.

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2017

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tom Nr 1

124--145

EN

In the period between the two World Wars, Turkey played quite an important role in the security system of the Second Republic of Poland, especially after the May Coup in 1926. Poland promoted the establishment of the Central European Bloc, which in some variants would also include Turkey. Furthermore, the state played an important role in the Polish Promethean politics because it had borders with the Caucasus, and in addition there was a wave of Caucasian emigration. As early as in the 1920s Poland initiated intelligence cooperation with Turkey against the USSR, as a result of which Polish intelligence missions operated in the Turkish territory and Turkish intelligence officers underwent specialized training in Poland. The closer the ties between Turkey and the Western countries before the outbreak of World War II, the more this cooperation intensified.

6

Sufizm w Dagestanie

87%

Siereda N.

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nr 4

26-42

EN

The article describes the religious situation in Daghestan, one of the north-Caucasian republics of Russia, focusing especially on the Islamic mysticism – Sufism. The introduction presents the geographical and ethnical situation of the Republic. The following chapters discuss the history of Islam in Caucasus which had started in Daghestan as well as the development of mystical brotherhoods and their profiles. The role of Islam and its mystical branch in contemporary Daghestan has been depicted in the conclusion.

7

51%

Adamczewski P.

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nr 3

PL

Artykuł prezentuje dokumenty przechowywane w Instytucie Polskim i Muzeum im. gen. Sikorskiego w Londynie dotyczące Kaukazu w czasach II wojny światowej. Materiał ten niewątpliwie zainteresuje badaczy zajmujących się dziejami Armii Polskiej w ZSRR. Nasuwa się wniosek, że Kaukaz dla polskich polityków był etapem przejściowym w procesie przechodzenia wojska polskiego spod dowództwa sowieckiego pod brytyjskie.The article presents documents from the Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum in London about the Caucasus during the Second World War. The presented material can be of interest to those exploring the history of the Polish Army in the USSR. It can be concluded that the Caucasus in the minds of Polish policymakers was to be a transitional stage in the process of bringing Polish troops out of the Soviet command and under the command of the British.

8

Ulichnye Familii among Doukhobors of the Caucasus and Canada

38%

Kalmakoff J.

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tom 63

67-114

EN

Ulichnye Familii among Doukhobors of the Caucasus and Canada A longstanding folk tradition among rural Russian peasants, ulichnye familii (‘street surnames’) were used by Doukhobors colloquially ‘on the street’ of a village to distinguish among families sharing the same official surname. Similar to Quebecois dit names and Scottish sept names, ulichnye familii arose because of the low surname stock within Doukhobor society. Passed down to succeeding generations and transferred between settlements, these names became a recognized form of address among Doukhobors, helping structure kinship networks and organize social interactions among villagers. When a large contingent of Doukhobors emigrated from the Caucasus to the Canadian prairies in 1899, they continued this naming practice in their settlements well into the early 20th century. A ubiquitous part of their culture for generations, today ulichnye familii have all but disappeared among Doukhobors, as a result of their assimilation, dispersal and modernization. This article offers an analysis of the Doukhobor anthroponymic custom of ulichnye familii: the social factors leading to their adoption; the etymological processes through which these names were formed; the manner in which they were used and transmitted; and the elements contributing to their eventual decline and disuse. It also includes an inventory of extant ulichnye familii among the Doukhobors of the Caucasus and Canada, obtained through extensive field interviews and archival research.