Wyniki wyszukiwania - Biblioteka Nauki

1

Caffeine and neurodegenerative disorders

100%

BOGATKO K. , SZOPA A. , POLESZAK E.

Medicina Internacia Revuo

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2014

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tom 26

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nr 103

89-93

EN

Neurodegenerative disorders are amongst the most dangerous diseases in modern society. At the end of 1990, adenosine receptor antagonists were used to block the adenosine A1 and A2A receptors causing less physical, cellular and molecular damage caused by Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. In recent years, an increase in death rate caused by these diseases has been observed among people under 74. Caffeine, as NMDA receptor antagonist, prevents an uncontrolled influx of calcium ions into the interior of the cells exerting a neuroprotective effect and beneficial procognitive effects. There is much evidence that caffeine intake is associated with a reduced risk of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases.

2

Subjektívny pokles kognície: koncept a súvislosti

100%

Krakovská S. , Hajdúk M. , Heretik A. , Košutzká Z. , Brandoburová P.

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nr 4

388-406

EN

Subjective cognitive decline is a concept that refers to a subjectively perceived decline in cognitive functioning over time, despite no objectively identified decreased performance in neuropsychological testing. This concept was primarily introduced and studied in the context of Alzheimer’s disease and may be a part of the continuum of neurodegenerative diseases. The aim of the review study is to describe the concept of subjective cognitive decline, with a focus on its predictive validity in relation to the development of mild cognitive impairment and dementia. The study also analyzes the relationships between subjective cognitive decline and other factors, such as somatic illnesses, mood disorders, anxiety, and personality factors. In conclusion, the study formulates procedures for professionals that are recommended based on the assessment of subjective cognitive decline and its criteria.

3

Letter to the editor - inconsistency on frequencies of the human apolipoprotein E Gene expression

100%

Sosa I. , Strenja-Linic I.

Open Medicine

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2014

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tom 9

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nr 2

313-314

EN

In this letter, we share our concerns regarding fluctuations of homozygosity for ApoE/ɛ4 allele. It appeared that over time, expression of this gene raised the felled as reported by various researchers. Considering the diversity of phenotypic characteristics assigned to expression of ApoE/ɛ4, seems to be a potentially useful to direct practitioner on concrete figures related to the genetic propensity of many conditions, from circulatory to mental disorders.

4

How Do Patients with Alzheimer’s Disease Describe Persons, Places and Situations? Description of Difficulties in Linguistic Communication in the Moderate Stage of Dementia

100%

Domagała A.

Logopedia

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2018

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tom 47 EN

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nr 1

99-114

EN

The paper presents difficulties in linguistic communication in Alzheimer’s patients (in the moderate stage dementia) on the basis of empirical studies concerning description as a form of spoken utterance, conducted in a 60-person group as part of the research project ‘Narrative and Its Disorders in the Course of Alzheimer’s Disease. The Scale of Narrative Skills as a Diagnostic Technique in Alzheimer’s Dementia’ (project manager: Dr Aneta Domagała; the 39th Competition of Ministry of Science and Higher Education for research projects NN104 155339). In relation to the findings presented in the comprehensive monograph on the problems of narrative (Domagała, 2015), the present paper compares the abilities of patients with regard to different kinds of description (of persons, interiors, situations) from the angle of the macro- and superstructure of text. From the superstructural perspective the greatest difficulties were shown in the case of describing a place. At the same time, when describing a place, the subjects had lesser difficulties with indicating the theme of an utterance and making generalizations than in the case of descriptions of persons and descriptions of situations.

5

THE CONTROVERSY SURROUNDING THE STATE CARE FOR ALZHEIMER’S – CASE REPORT

100%

Zieliński E. , Bornikowska A.

Kultura Bezpieczeństwa. Nauka – Praktyka – Refleksje

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2016

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tom 24(24)

166-177

EN

It is estimated that there are 36 million people with dementia in the world and in 2050 this number will double. The number of patients with Alzheimer’s Poles is estimated at about 200‒250 thousand. 150 thousands have no primary diagnosis. With the ageing of the Polish society the number of sufferers is likely to grow. The disease usually develops after the age of 65. Incidence of the disease increases with age. Symptoms of the disease are: memory disorders, sudden mood changes, cognitive and behavior disorders.. Is it irreversible changes in the brain – for people with Alzheimer’s cerebral cortex fades, because the neurons build up amyloid. Although the situation of the people affected by this disease in Poland recently somewhat improved: faster diagnosis and access to modern drugs for which to get the patient, Poland is still not ready for adequate action which involves an increase in morbidity. Many institutions do not fulfill their tasks in terms of aid to the sick and their families. It lacks effective system solutions. Patients in general are deprived of the possibility of using, for example, living houses. In practice, in general it’s hard to talk about any kind of institutional support for people with Alzheimer’s disease. A major problem is the lack of systems and standards of care, lack of support for families and carers. With Alzheimer’s patients in Poland can do it all.

6

Character of the relationship with Alzheimer patient and the psychological costs of care

100%

Wojtyna E. , Popiołek K.

Polish Psychological Bulletin

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2012

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tom 43

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nr 4

244-252

EN

Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of dementia. The aim of this study was to determine the dependence between the quality of the caregiver-patient relationship and the psychological costs the caregiver bears during the caregiving period. This study encompassed 292 caregivers (104 partners, 117 children and 71 friends or others persons). The study indicated the greatest level of depression and caregiving-related burdens in the spouses group, and the least in the friends/others group. The most important predictor of the level of burden in the caregiving role turned out to be the nature of the caregiver-patient relationship; however, a varying set of the signifi cance of individual elements of this relationship were indicated in different caregiver groups.

7

Choroba Alzheimera jako czynnik modyfikujący funkcjonowanie rodzin

88%

Lech A.

Pogranicze. Studia Społeczne

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2014

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tom 24

211-242

EN

The progressive process of ageing of contemporary societies and the increase in life expectancy related to the process result in a steady rise in the number of people suffering from Alzheimer’s. The disease is becoming a serious problem for a growing number of families who need to provide constant, long-term care for Alzheimer’s patients. The article presents the results of a research conducted among the participants of support groups for Alzheimer’s families. The purpose of the research was to grasp the way in which the presence of an Alzheimer’s patient in a family influences interactions, family relations and functioning of the family. The conclusions presented in the article are related to such problems as a sense of moral duty to provide the patient with care, changes in the structure of a family caused by Alzheimer’s disease, relations between the patient and their main caregiver, problems of acting as a caregiver, the influence of Alzheimer’s disease on family relations and bonds.

8

Possible involvement of endoplasmic reticulum stress in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease

88%

Hosoi T. , Nomura J. , Ozawa K. , Nishi A. , Nomura Y.

Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in Diseases

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2015

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tom 2

|

nr 1

EN

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an organelle that plays a crucial role in protein quality control such as protein folding. Evidence to indicate the involvement of ER in maintaining cellular homeostasis is increasing. However, when cells are exposed to stressful conditions, which perturb ER function, unfolded proteins accumulate leading to ER stress. Cells then activate the unfolded protein response (UPR) to cope with this stressful condition. In the present review, we will discuss and summarize recent advances in research on the basic mechanisms of the UPR. We also discuss the possible involvement of ER stress in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Potential therapeutic opportunities for diseases targeting ER stress is also described.

9

Coherence and phase synchrony analyses of EEG signals in Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI): A study of functional brain connectivity

88%

Handayani N. , Haryanto F. , Khotimah S. N. , Arif I. , Taruno W. P.

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tom Vol. 24, Iss. 1

1--9

EN

This paper presents an EEG study for coherence and phase synchrony in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) subjects. MCI is characterized by cognitive decline, which is an early stage of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). AD is a neurodegenerative disorder with symptoms such as memory loss and cognitive impairment. EEG coherence is a statistical measure of correlation between signals from electrodes spatially separated on the scalp. The magnitude of phase synchrony is expressed in the phase locking value (PLV), a statistical measure of neuronal connectivity in the human brain. Brain signals were recorded using an Emotiv Epoc 14-channel wireless EEG at a sampling frequency of 128 Hz. In this study, we used 22 elderly subjects consisted of 10 MCI subjects and 12 healthy subjects as control group. The coherence between each electrode pair was measured for all frequency bands (delta, theta, alpha and beta). In the MCI subjects, the value of coherence and phase synchrony was generally lower than in the healthy subjects especially in the beta frequency. A decline of intrahemisphere coherence in the MCI subjects occurred in the left temporo-parietal-occipital region. The pattern of decline in MCI coherence is associated with decreased cholinergic connectivity along the path that connects the temporal, occipital, and parietal areas of the brain to the frontal area of the brain. EEG coherence and phase synchrony are able to distinguish persons who suffer AD in the early stages from healthy elderly subjects.

10

Esculetin Attenuates Neurotoxicity Induced by Aβ25-35 in SH-SY5Y Cells via inhibiting Oxidative Stress and Mitochondria-mediated Apoptosis

88%

Gao J.-L. , Gong X.-Y.

Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica - Drug Research

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2018

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tom 75

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nr 5

1177-1185

EN

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease afflicting many people worldwide. As the specific biomarker, beta amyloid (Aβ) is considered to serve a central role in the progress of AD. To discover effective therapy for AD, esculetin was investigated using SH-SY5Y cells to evaluate its protective effects against the neurotoxicity induced by Aβ25-35. As a result, esculetin can improve the viability of SH-SY5Y cells injured by Aβ25-35 (58.0%, 66.1% and 82.1% at 0.1, 1 and 10 μM vs 49.5% at 0 μM). Further investigation has demonstrated the protective effects of esculetin at different concetrations of 0.1, 1 and 10 μM are associated with its inhibition of oxidative stress and apoptosis in SH-SY5Y cells, which is more observable especially at both 1 and 10 μM. These observations can give evidences for the following investigation in vivo and discovery of novel preventive method for AD.

11

Formy wsparcia pacjenta i rodziny w sytuacji choroby o zróżnicowanym przebiegu

88%

Kołecka B. , Kołecka A.

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2022

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nr 65

137-147

EN

The essence of the crisis situation is the breakdown of the current hierarchy of values, the reorganization of everyday life, the intensification of cognitive and emotional efforts to ensure relative intrapsychic homeostasis, and the psychosocial balance in various areas of life (including family and professional life). One of the crisis events is a disease that changes the daily life of individuals and their relatives. The aim of this study is to provide psychological characteristics of the patient in the situation of the disease with its various course, to present the consequences of the appearance of the disease on the level of intrapsychic and social life, and to indicate possible forms of intervention and support for people experiencing their own disease or the disease of a person in the family. An issue worth emphasizing is the provision of specialized, multi-level support for patients and families in the ongoing disease process. Appropriate and responsible therapeutic interactions in the cognitive and emotional dimensions can effectively reduce anxiety and stress reactions and thus contribute to better coping in a crisis situation.

12

RESEARCH OF AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY: THE AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL INTERVIEW (AI) METHOD (HEALTHY MEMORY AND ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE

88%

Szőllősi Á. , Kónya A.

Magyar Pszichologiai Szemle (Hungarian Psychological Review)

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2011

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tom 66

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nr 4

587-603

EN

Levine, Svoboda and his colleagues (2002) developed a semi-structured Autobiographical Interview method to research specific autobiographical memories, which can highlight event-specific contents in the narration of a memory. The goal of the recent study is the Hungarian adaptation of this technique. By the help of this method three healthy age groups have been compared: young (aged 20–27; N = 25), middle-aged (aged 45–55; N = 25) and elderly adults (aged 60–79; N = 16), respectively a group of clinical patients: Alzheimer’s patients in the early stage of the disease (aged 60–80; N = 16). It has been confirmed that in healthy people episodic richness of autobiographical events failed through the age. Furthermore in the early stage of Alzheimer’s disease episodic memory impaires much more, than in healthy adults of similar age.

13

Comparative Analysis and Fusion of MRI and PET Images based on Wavelets for Clinical Diagnosis

75%

Sebastian J. , King G.

International Journal of Electronics and Telecommunications

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2022

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tom Vol. 68. No. 4

867--873

EN

Nowadays, Medical imaging modalities like Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), Positron Emission Tomography (PET), Single Photon Emission Tomography (SPECT), and Computed Tomography (CT) play a crucial role in clinical diagnosis and treatment planning. The images obtained from each of these modalities contain complementary information of the organ imaged. Image fusion algorithms are employed to bring all of this disparate information together into a single image, allowing doctors to diagnose disorders quickly. This paper proposes a novel technique for the fusion of MRI and PET images based on YUV color space and wavelet transform. Quality assessment based on entropy showed that the method can achieve promising results for medical image fusion. The paper has done a comparative analysis of the fusion of MRI and PET images using different wavelet families at various decomposition levels for the detection of brain tumors as well as Alzheimer’s disease. The quality assessment and visual analysis showed that the Dmey wavelet at decomposition level 3 is optimum for the fusion of MRI and PET images. This paper also compared the results of several fusion rules such as average, maximum, and minimum, finding that the maximum fusion rule outperformed the other two.

14

Opieka pielęgniarska nad pacjentem z chorobą Alzheimera

75%

Nieckarz R.

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2015

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nr 2

18-23

PL

Wstęp: Choroba Alzheimera należy do grupy chorób, które najczęściej rozwijają się w podeszłym wieku. Jej początek jest bezobjawowy, natomiast w czasie, gdy dochodzi do manifestacji objawów otępiennych, zazwyczaj zmiany są już daleko posunięte. Cel pracy: Celem pracy jest przedstawienie specyfiki choroby Alzheimera oraz problemów pojawiających się w trakcie opieki nad pacjentem na podstawie opisu przypadku. Materiał i metody: W niniejszej pracy posłużono się metodą analizy przypadku. Wykorzystano techniki badawcze takie jak: wywiad z pacjentką i jej opiekunami, obserwację (podczas wizyt w Poradni Zdrowia Psychicznego), analizę dokumentacji medycznej. Opis przypadku: W artykule przedstawiono opis pacjentki w wieku 78 lat, u której przebieg choroby datuje się od 2008 r. W badaniu przeprowadzonym w początkowej fazie choroby dokonano oceny stanu psychicznego za pomocą kwestionariusza Krótkiej Skali Oceny Stanu Psychicznego (Mini-Mental State Examination– MMSE) oraz przeprowadzono Test Rysowania Zegara (Clock drawing). Przedstawiono przebieg choroby u pacjentki oraz najczęstsze problemy pielęgnacyjne i opiekuńcze. Wnioski: Choroba Alzheimera stanowi przyczynę wielu problemów dotyczących nie tylko samego pacjenta, ale również jego opiekunów. Rodzina oraz pielęgniarka sprawująca opiekę nad chorym powinny dołożyć wszelkich starań, aby pacjenta z rozpoznaną chorobą otoczyć całościową opieką.

EN

Introduction: Alzheimer’s disease belongs to the group of the diseases which develop most often in the elderly period of a human life. Its beginning is usually symptomless, however, when the symptoms of dementia appear, the changes are already far-advanced. Aim of the study: The study aims at presenting the Alzheimer’s disease profile as well as the issues which arise during nursing based on the case report. Material and methods: The study was conducted according to the method of the case analysis. The research methods included interviewing the patient and her caretakers, observing the patient during her visits to the Mental Health Clinic and analysing medical records. Case description: The article presents the description of a female patient aged 78, with the disease course dated on 2008. Her mental state was assessed during initial examination and performed on the basis of the questionnaire named Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and the test called Clock Drawing. The article includes the course of the disease in the patient and most common nursing and caretaking issues. Conclusions: Alzheimer’s disease evokes plenty of problems not only in a patient but their caretakers as well. A family and a nurse who take care of the patient ought to do their best to provide the patient with a holistic nursing care.

15

Connotation Disorders as an Indicator of Disintegration of the Language System

75%

Lipski W.

Logopedia

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2018

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tom 47 EN

|

nr 1

79-98

EN

The present study focuses on disorders of speech coherence and describes them using the concept of connotation. Connotation is the term that has become established in science with several meanings. The author makes a review of these meanings and shows how the phenomenon of connotation is associated with language disorders. Early studies on connotation in the philosophicallogical dimension go back to the 19th century and are connected with the works by J.S. Mill, while K. Bühler is regarded as the founder of the linguistic theory of connotation. Within linguistics, connotation was perceived in different ways, and knowledge about it developed with the development of this discipline. Studies by N. Chomsky show that it is formal and semantic relationships between words used in an utterance that determine its coherence. Chomsky himself did not use the concept of connotation but he presented two levels of coherence disorders in his works. The principles of connotation are presented there as rules of subcategorization and selection. The author of the paper emphasizes that the connotation properties of verbs are a factor that determines the syntactic pattern. The paper shows the proposal of including investigations on connotation in the issues of logopedics. The author draws attention to the occurrence of connotation disorders in schizophasia, aphasia, and dementia. It should be stressed that the disintegration of connotation relationships looks different in each of these disorders. Connotation disorders are related to the improper functioning of the brain, particularly to disorders in the frontotemporal region.

16

Problemy pielęgnacyjne pacjentów z chorobą Alzheimera.

75%

Uchmanowicz I. , Pierożyńska A. , Kołtuniuk A. , Kuberka I. , Rosińczuk J.

Współczesne Pielęgniarstwo i Ochrona Zdrowia

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2015

|

nr 1

17-21

PL

Choroba Alzheimera to postępujące zwyrodnienie centralnego układu nerwowego z klinicznymi objawami otępienia najczęściej dotyczące osób starszych (powyżej 65. r.ż.), które uszkadzając tkankę mózgową, powoduje nieodwracalną utratę funkcji poznawczych oraz zaburzenia afektu i zachowania. Zmiany chorobowe postępują w czasie i zwykle trwają około 10–15 lat powodując ostatecznie całkowite uzależnienie chorego od pomocy innych osób. Celem pracy jest omówienie najczęściej występujących problemów pielęgnacyjnych u pacjentów z chorobą Alzheimera oraz przedstawienie działań umożliwiających ich rozwiązanie.

EN

Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive degeneration of the central nervous system with clinical symptoms of dementia mostly affecting elderly people (over 65 years). It damages the brain tissue causing irreversible loss of cognitive functions bu also leads to affect and behaviour disorders. Lesions progress gradually over time and it usually takes approximately 10 to 15 years before eventually causing the patient rely completely on the assistance of others. The aim of the study is to discuss the most common problems in the care of patients with Alzheimer’s disease and to present actions that will enable their solution.

17

Pedagogika osób z otępieniem jako nowy obszar geragogiki specjalnej

75%

Zych A. A.

Labor et Educatio

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2014

|

nr 2

271-283

EN

This paper refers to the problem of care, help and support in terms of persons with dementia and points the issue of compassion fatigue and long-term involvement of patient’s family. It presents some suggestions of the German educator and psychologist Janina Steurenthaler to develop a new geragogics discipline Dementagogik, that is pedagogy directed at people with dementia. In this paper the author pays a particular attention to the basic aims of pedagogy of persons with dementia as a subdiscipline of special geragogics, pointing to demographic changes and the increasing number of persons suffering dementia, both in a global scale and in Poland. This article also provides the discussion on recommendations of the World Health Organization and the European Union experts that are aimed at protection and support of elderly people with chronic issues and their caregivers. The paper ends with the basic tasks for the implementation of the pedagogy of people with dementia, as well as the final conclusion that the “dementagogics” emerged in the European Year of the Brain (2014) and presents a vision of promoting – in the time of globalization – a dementia-friendly society.

18

Texture and gene expression analysis of the MRI brain in detection of Alzheimer’s disease

75%

Bustamam A. , Sarwinda D. , Ardenaswari G.

Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Soft Computing Research

|

2018

|

tom Vol. 8, No. 2

111--120

EN

Alzheimer’s disease is a type of dementia that can cause problems with human memory, thinking and behavior. This disease causes cell death and nerve tissue damage in the brain. The brain damage can be detected using brain volume, whole brain form, and genetic testing. In this research, we propose texture analysis of the brain and genomic analysis to detect Alzheimer’s disease. 3D MRI images were chosen to analyze the texture of the brain, and microarray data were chosen to analyze gene expression. We classified Alzheimer’s disease into three types: Alzheimer’s, Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI), and Normal. In this study, texture analysis was carried out by using the Advanced Local Binary Pattern (ALBP) and the Gray Level Co-occurrence Matrix (GLCM). We also propose the bi-clustering method to analyze microarray data. The experimental results from texture analysis show that ALBP had better performance than GLCM in classification of Alzheimer’s disease. The ALBP method achieved an average value of accuracy of between 75% - 100% for binary classification of the whole brain data. Furthermore, Biclustering method with microarray data shows good performance gene expression, where this information show influence Alzheimer’s disease with total of bi-cluster is 6.

19

Immunologiczne aspekty choroby Alzheimera

75%

Wojtera M. , Kłoszewska I. , Sobów T. , Liberski P. P.

Aktualności Neurologiczne

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2006

|

tom 6

|

nr 2

108-115

EN

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is an incurable neurodegenerative disease, which is accompanied by chronic inflammation. The immune system has an important role in the process of the disease. The deposition of amyloid β (Aβ) protein is a key pathological feature in Alzheimer’s disease. This article reviews immunotherapeutic strategies against AD. In murine models of AD, both active and passive immunization against Aβ induces a marked reduction in an amyloid brain burden and an improvement in cognitive functions. The findings from murine studies lead to clinical studies. One Phase II clinical trial of active immunization against Aβ was discontinued after 18 patients developed meningoencephalitis. After this lesson learned, new immunotherapeutic strategies, including both active and passive immunization, are investigated in clinical centers.

PL

Choroba Alzheimera (AD) jest nieuleczalną chorobą neurodegeneracyjną, której towarzyszy przewlekły proces zapalny. Układ immunologiczny może mieć istotny wpływ na przebieg procesu chorobowego. Głównym patologicznym wyznacznikiem choroby Alzheimera jest gromadzenie w obrębie mózgu złogów β-amyloidu. W obecnym artykule przedstawiono informacje na temat możliwości zastosowania immunoterapii w leczeniu choroby Alzheimera. Metody immunoterapeutyczne, mające usuwać amyloid β z chorych mózgów, dały bardzo pozytywne rezultaty w badaniach na zwierzętach. Zarówno metody aktywnej, jak i biernej immunizacji powodowały wyraźne zmniejszenie zawartości amyloidu w mózgach myszy transgenicznych oraz poprawę ich funkcji poznawczych. Bardzo dobre wyniki na modelach zwierzęcych pozwoliły przeprowadzić wstępne badania kliniczne. Ich wyniki są również obiecujące, choć obarczone ryzykiem zapalenia mózgu. Jedyne dotychczas badanie II Fazy z zastosowaniem szczepionki przeciwko Aβ zostało przerwane z powodu rozwoju u 18 pacjentów zapalenia opon mózgowych i mózgu. Obecnie ośrodkach badawczych pojawiają się nowe rodzaje technik immunoterapeutycznych.

20

A therapeutic potential of nicotine: reassessing the current paradigm of nicotine pharmacotherapy, literature review.

75%

Delijewski M. , Kośmider L. , Balwierz R. J. , Tomas M. B. , Yi D. , Koszowski B. , Marciniak D. , Karolewicz B.

Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica - Drug Research

|

2018

|

tom 75

|

nr 5

1053-1061

EN

Introduction: Nicotine is a widely known alkaloid synthesized from tobacco plants, being a main constituent of tobacco smoke and cigarettes. Nicotine has also gained eminence as the therapeutic option in managing smoking cessation and even other health conditions. However, the therapeutic potential of nicotine in other diseases has yet to be completely assessed. This information void stems from an inherent aversion from researchers in assessing nicotine’s risk-benefit, due to its toxicities. We present information on the current body of evidence relating to non-traditional therapeutic applications of nicotine to fill this literature void. The purpose of this work is to present current literature on the therapeutic uses of nicotine in treating various diseases. Methods: Electronic search in PubMed for relevant research relating to the therapeutic potential of nicotine in various diseases. Results/conclusions: Nicotine has gained therapeutic significance as an active compound of the nicotine replacement therapy. Research show nicotine may have other therapeutic applications in some diseases. We discussed application of nicotine in diminished prevalence of Parkinson’s disease, decreasing symptoms of the Tourette’s syndrome, psychiatric diseases like chizophrenia, depression and management of pain. We also reviewed nicotine dosing, type of formulations, and compliance which are crucial factors in the therapeutic applications of nicotine.