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EN
The paper discusses the issue of the legitimacy of power as one of the key factors to ensure the stability of government and the entire socio-political system of state. The starting point for the analysis is provided by the “neofunctional elitist paradigm” (as named by its creator) that has been developed for over thirty years by John Higley and his collaborators. According to this paradigm, an opportunity for efficient communication between the government elite and the most important opposition elite is one of the methods for creating a “consolidated democracy”, which, in the opinion of the authors of the paradigm, is the most desirable model of modern system of representative democracy. Further on in the paper, the history of the main issues related to the legitimacy and legitimization of power are presented using selected examples, primarily with reference to the main theoretical concepts of power and its legitimacy. The main part of the analysis concerns Poland and selected countries in this region, and the issue of whether it is justified to classify them as consolidated democracies. The author reminds of J. Higley’s opinion that Poland and Hungary witnessed negotiations between the representatives of the former, socialist elite and members of the opposition at the beginning of the process of political transformation. Owing to that, “consensual elites” emerged in both countries. The author also notes that the process of transformation in this part of Europe (and in particular in Poland) is, in a way, ‘traditionally’ assessed much more positively by political scientists and sociologists from the West than by the academics (let alone journalists and politicians) in Poland. This favorable assessment is exemplified by their including Poland in a group of a few countries with a “consolidated democracy”.
EN
The main aim of this article is to examine the question of direct democracy and political participation in modern societies in order to answer the question whether it is really an important part of the political reality of modern societies. The direct democracy dates back even to the ancient Athens of fifth and fourth centuries BC. But in this case the democracy had been limited to the citizens only (it means mature males of citizen families) and this group formed as little as at about 10% of the population of Athenian state. Nowadays, the question of the so-called “participatory budget” forms rather part of propaganda (mainly before the local election) and not part of the political reality. And so, the question of political participation ofcitizens canbedescribed rather interms ofpolitical myths thanpolitical reality.
PL
Zasadniczym celem artykułu jest (zgodnie z tytułem) próba zastanowienia się czy i na ile demokracja bezpośrednia i partycypacja polityczna stanowi istotny element współczesnej rzeczywistości politycznej. Demokracja bezpośrednia datuje się jeszcze z czasów Grecji klasycznej piątego i czwartego wieku p.n.e. Była to jednak klasyczna demokracja dla nielicznych, gdyż tylko dorośli mężczyźni z rodzin obywatelskich posiadali prawa obywatelskie. A stanowili oni zaledwie około 10% mieszkańców Attyki (państwa ateńskiego). Obecnie, zwłaszcza budżet obywatelski stanowi raczej element propagandy przedwyborczej niż autentyczny element życia politycznego. Wydaje się więc, iż partycypacja polityczna pozostaje raczej w sferze mitów i propagandy niż rzeczywistości politycznej.
PL
Zadaniem niniejszego artykułu jest próba podejścia porównawczego do zjawiska kultu jednostki, które stanowiło cechę charakterystyczną trzech systemów politycznych o charakterze totalitarnym, które rozwinęły się w Europie po pierwszej wojnie światowej, a mianowicie Włochy pod rządami Benito Mussoliniego, nazistowska Trzecia Rzesza oraz stalinowski Związek Radziecki. Stąd też po ogólnej prezentacji zjawiska kultu jednostki w tych trzech systemach politycznych o charakterze totalitarnym, dokonano analizy czterech kwestii. A mianowicie: tak zwane „produkty kultu”, metody używane w propagandzie kultu jednostki, funkcje kultu jednostki oraz postawy samych totalitarnych przywódców w stosunku do kultu jednostki skoncentrowanego na ich osobach.
EN
The aim of this article is an attempt of comparative approach to the personality cult phenomenon, which formed the distinctive feature of three totalitarian political systems developed in Europe after the first world war, namely Italy during the rule of Benito Mussolini, Nazi Third Reich and the Stalinist Soviet Union. And so, after some general presentation of personality cults centered on three leaders of these totalitarian political systems, four general questions had been analyzed. These were as follows: some so-called “cult products”, some methods used in the cult’s propaganda, some functions of the cult of personality and finally some attitudes of totalitarian political leaders toward the cult of personality.
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EN
Parliamentary elections certainly form the most important procedure in a democratic political system. Nevertheless, there are some difficulties with their application. For instance, in the parliamentary elections in Poland last year, about every sixth vote was wasted or, in other words, it was cast for a political party that failed to be elected to the parliament. Elections also functioned in nondemocratic political systems. In the former Soviet Union, elections were truly celebrated, even though their results were known in advance. Thus, elections had quite different functions in non-democratic political systems than in modern parliamentary democracies. For instance, they were supposed to mobilize society, to show the efficiency of the political system and also to address some purely administrative questions – such as checking who lived at specific addresses.
PL
Wybory stanowią najważniejszą procedurę ustroju demokracji parlamentarnej. Pomimo długiego ich stosowaniu, ciągle jeszcze pojawiają się trudności. W najnowszych wyborach parlamentarnych w Polsce, których pierwszą rocznicę właśnie obchodzimy, aż co szósty głos został zmarnowany – czyli oddany na partię, która nie dostała się do parlamentu. Tym niemniej wybory funkcjonowały również i w systemach politycznych, które z demokracją nie miały zbyt wiele wspólnego. W Związku Radzieckim wybory były prawdziwym świętem, choć ich wynik był z góry przesądzony. Dlatego też wybory pełniły w systemach niedemokratycznych zupełnie inne funkcje niż w ustroju demokracji parlamentarnej. Zadaniem wyborów była mobilizacja społeczeństwa, wykazanie sprawności aparatu a nawet kwestie czysto administracyjne – jak meldunek i zamieszkanie w określonym miejscu.
EN
The main aim of the article is to present some plans of rebuilding of Rome and Berlin as an important element and mechanism of process of legitimizing the totalitarian political system (Italian fascism and German nazizm). The process of rebuilding of Rome started with the uncovering of some important monuments constructed in ancient times (for instance Ara Pacis Augustae or Colosseum). Thanks to creation of some new roads and streets (for instance via dell’Impero – modern Via dei Fori Imperiali or via della Conciliazione), we can walk and admire the Eternal City. Afterwards, some new complexes had been constructed – such as the university campus (città universitaria), great sport complex (Foro Mussolini, modern Foro Italico) and the vast area for world’s exhibition (EUR). On the other hand, some plans connected with the new German capital (so-called Germania) remained plans and sketches, only.
PL
Głównym celem artykułu jest prezentacja planów przebudowy Rzymu i Berlina jako istotnego elementu procesu legitymizacji totalitarnych systemów politycznych (odpowiednio włoskiego faszyzmu i niemieckiego nazizmu). Przebudowa stolicy Włoch rozpoczęła się od odsłonięcia wielu istotnych zabytków antycznego Rzymu (np. Ara Pacis Augustae czy Koloseum). Dzięki stworzeniu nowych arterii komunikacyjnych (np. via dell’Impero – obecnie Via dei Fori Imperiali czy via della Conciliazione) możemy dziś swobodnie poruszać się po Wiecznym Mieście. Następnie stworzono miasteczko uniwersyteckie (città universitaria), tereny sportowe (Foro Mussolini, obecnie Foro Italico) czy tereny wystawiennicze (EUR). Natomiast plany stworzenia nowej stolicy hitlerowskiej Trzeciej Rzeszy (Germania) pozostały na makietach i deskach kreślarskich.
EN
The author discusses the issues of authority (in particular political authority), approaching it as a fragment of a highly complex and extensive subject. He emphasizes that it is extremely difficult to find a notion (as well as a phenomenon, or rather a process) that is equally significant in political science, and yet one that is simultaneously so elusive and difficult to verify pragmatically as authority. He stresses that it has accompanied Homo sapiens since their very beginnings. The basement of the National Museum in Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, exhibits the remnants of a skeleton of our great-, great-… (and so on) grandmother, ‘Lucy.’ As we observe the behavior of our hominid relatives (from whom the notion of ‘alpha male’ has been transferred to contemporary politics) it is hard to avoid the idea that Lucy had to fight for her position. Authority permeates all realms of social existence and is present in all historical and contemporary societies. On the most comprehensive macroscale, authority is the core aspect of international political relations, as well as economic relations between states or transnational companies. On a microscale, authority is exercised in the most basic human contacts and interactions. It is manifested as the authority of state over its citizens, superiors over subordinates, teachers over students, parents over children, and girls over those infatuated with them. It is this universal and common nature of the phenomenon (or process) of authority which occurs both inside and outside politics, and which generates such profound difficulties.
EN
It passed already one year since the outbreak of the „Arab Spring" of 2011 but the situation is far from clear (especially in Syria) and a lot of old problems remained. Undoubtedly, it would be very instructive to present an attempt of comparison between this revolt in Northern Africa (and in such the Arab countries as Syria and Jemen) and the demolition of communist (or perhaps rather socialist) system in Central Europe in autumn of 1989. The theoretical base for such the comparison can be provided by the so-called „neofunctional elitist paradigm", elaborated by J. Higley (with his collaborators). The main notion of this theory is the question of elite settlement - between the main elite of the existing government and of the opposition. At the same time there is the main difference between the situation in Central Europe and Northern Africa. Whether in some states of Central Europe (especially in Poland, Hungary and Czech Republic) such the opposition existed - in Northern Africa does not. And so, the perspectives for political and social transformation toward the democracy in Northern Africa is not so good as it seems.
PL
Ustrój totalitarny, w przeciwieństwie do systemu demokracji przedstawicielskiej (opartego na bezosobowych procedurach), jest mocno związany z pozycją przywódcy,. Stąd też kult jednostki nie tylko służy utrwaleniu władzy totalitarnego przywódcy, ale przyczynia się do legitymizacji całego systemu politycznego. W artykule zaprezentowano propagowanie i tworzenie kultu jednostki wokół trzech przywódców państw totalitarnych: Stalina, Mussoliniego i Hitlera.
EN
The totalitarian system, in contrast to the system of representative democracy (based on impersonal procedures), is strongly related to the position of the leader. Therefore, the cult of the individual not only serves to consolidate the power of a totalitarian leader, but also contributes to the legitimacy of the entire political system. The article presents the propagation and creation of the cult of the individual around three leaders of totalitarian states: Stalin, Mussolini and Hitler.
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