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1
Content available remote Kurdish Diaspora Politics in Globalising Processes
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The article presents the constructive role of the Kurdish diaspora organisations (from 1978 to 2002) and their progress from exclusive nationalism to successively accommodating what has been called “post-national thinking. On the basis of Michael Keating and John McGarry’s research, the author analyses how transnational integration and other challenges to the nationstate both encourage the revival of stateless nationalisms and simultaneously provide new means for its realization. The Kurdish diaspora organisations shown in this study represent a global-wide processes of change in the nature and form of political organisations that question the principles of centralised state supremacy and permanence of bonds between territories and people. The author demonstrates the transition in the policy of those organizations, which withdrew from the projects of complete Kurdish independence and instead included human right principles and cultural and political pluralism as important frames of reference for their strategies, activities, and relations. The author also presents the changes in the Middle East, including Turkey and Iraq, in relation to the Kurds and their political engagement.Full text: http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/czasopismo/589/?idno=14760
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Content available remote An Historical Overview to the Kurdish Problem
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This article presents an overview of the history the largest nation in the world without its own independent state. Nationalist aspirations of an approximately 30 million Kurds living within the borders of Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria remain a factor of instability in the geostrategically important Middle East, especially due to the fact that Kurds inhabit areas with strategically important resources. The desire of many Kurds for statehood, or at least cultural autonomy, has led to an almost continuous series of Kurdish revolts since the creation of the modern Middle East state system following World War I. The Kurdish problem refers to the fear of the states in which the Kurds live that Kurdish demands will threaten and even destroy their territorial integrity, even though, as the author points out, the Kurds themselves are notoriously divided geographically, politically, linguistically, and tribally. The article is divided into parts, which are devoted to the origin of the Kurdish nation, as well as the history and the current situation of Kurds in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Syria, and Europe (the European diaspora).Full text: http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/czasopismo/589/?idno=14760
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Content available remote Much Pain, Little Gain: The Consequences of the Iraq War for Iraqis and Americans
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The aim of this study is to provide details about contemporary reality in Iraq and the impact of the American invasion on Iraq and American interests in the ten years since 2003. The analysis of the various source material, including survey results, policy statements, and statistical data reveals that, while the invasion brought gains to both the Iraqis and the Americans, it did so at a great cost. The assessment of the outcome of that invasion is complicated by the fact that contemporary Iraq was influenced by two decades of the rule of Saddam Hussein, who dominated the government and repressed his real and imagined foes. In March 2003 the US hoped for a quick win; however, its troops were to remain in Iraq until December 2011, giving it significant influence throughout this period. While ten years have passed since the invasion, only ten years have passed and that may not be an adequate time frame in which to identify and evaluate gains and losses.Full text: http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/czasopismo/589/?idno=14763
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Content available remote New Geopolitics – What Is Actually “New”?
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The aim of the article is to show the differences between classical and contemporary geopolitics. Geopolitics was always considering the territory as a main determinant of states development but globalization began to offer a world structured in a very different way. In the “global village” the territory is less important as it used to be. That is why modern geopoliticians have been changing the meaning of the geographical factor. About geopolitics scholars started to write, again 1. They show it in a wider perspective, as a space/place (for example “virtual space”) or imagined space/place (for example “lost homeland”) or just people’s perception (meta-geography) of the world order, different countries, politics and culture. The question raised in the article is: Can we identify a new geopolitics as new scientific approach to explore world politics or is it just derivation of the classical geopolitical concepts? Full text: http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/czasopismo/589/?idno=14760
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Content available remote Treaty Politics – Sources of Law and Historical Development
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Initially, treaty politics based on the law of treaties was created exclusively of customary norms. During the process of superseding custom with international agreements, treaties and other documents that contain norms based on treaty authorisation also started to be viewed as the sources of international law. In the political and legal doctrine, the notion of a treaty was interpreted in various manners, due to, among others, the reduced objective scope of treaties. A significant input into the understanding of treaty politics was made by the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of March 25, 1969, which caused that the place and meaning of custom in the international law ceased to be questioned. An element essential for the development of custom is practice, which should be long enough; however, it is difficult to pinpoint the precise length of the required period. It is possible to unambiguously state that customary law may function alongside treaty law of the same content.Full text: http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/czasopismo/589/?idno=14760
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Content available remote Political Regime Theory: Identifying and Defining Three Archetypes
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This article aims to clear the field of proliferated terminology by clearly defining what constitutes a political regime and what does not. After a clear definition, the article will advocate a dichotomous and trichotomous division for political regimes. Further it will analyze the defining aspects of democratic, authoritarian and totalitarian regimes and draw clear divisions between these archetypes. Finally the paper proposes some well outlined definitions for each regime type.Full text: http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/czasopismo/589/?idno=14760
PL
In this article I argue that rationalist explanations which aspire to demonstrate why international security institutions develop, do not qualify as fully satisfactory arguments. Their limits become apparent particularly if one attempts to account on their basis for the diversity of types of institutions such as balance of power, collective security, hegemony, etc.The initial step in my analysis was to address the limitations of the three arguments which I referred to as materialist, functionalist, and evolutionist that individually make up either whole rationalist conceptions on the development of international security institutions or parts of them. Having done so, I also examined the possibilities to combine these arguments to explore whether the effort yields any extra explanatory power.The main reasons for why these explanations and their combinations fail to convincingly account for the diversity of international security institutions are threefold. First, the functionalist, evolutionist, and the functionalist-evolutionist arguments do not attempt to address the issue directly and provide only a general assertion on the factors influencing the formation of institutions instead of tackling the problem with respect to their particular types. Second, the materialist argument advances a logic of state action that justifies the creation of certain types of institutions and, at the same time, rules out the development of others. Third, it proves also incompatible with the other two arguments. The implication of this is that states would have to choose between mutually exclusive logics of action and, thus, behave in a way for which none of the arguments provides any explanation.Full text: http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/czasopismo/589/?idno=14760
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Content available remote Moving Toward Equity: Bringing Bilingual Education to Turkey’s Kurdish Children
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This article examines the history of Kurdish language repression in Turkey and argues that bilingual education for Kurdish children will ultimately benefit both Turks and Kurds. Research shows that bilingual education tends to create empathy between the children of conflicting groups. This is particularly intriguing in the situation of Hebrew-Arabic bilingual schools in Israel, since the situation of Arab Israelis is in many ways comparable to that of Turkish Kurds.Full text: http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/czasopismo/589/?idno=14760
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Content available remote The Concept of Strategic Partnership as an Input in the Modern Alliance Theory
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The article is devoted to a new institution of the international political relations – the strategic partnership. The author analysis the realities of the foreign policy conducted in the first decade of the 21st century and takes a side in the discussion between the neoliberals and the neorealists on the states’ natural tendency to rivalry or cooperation. Settling her concept in the framework of the realists theory of alliances, the author describes the condition of research on the issue and differentiates between the sensu stricte and sensu largo alliance, moving closer the wider understanding of the term. The core of the essay, though, is the presentation of a perfect model of the researched institution. Therefore, the author presents and justifies her own definition and sets constitutive features of the material strategic partnership.Full text: http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/czasopismo/589/?idno=14760
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Content available remote ‘Honour’-Based Violence: Moving towards Action in Iraqi Kurdistan
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The paper presents a discussion of ‘honour’-based violence, followed by the methods, findings and recommendations. Using a gender perspective, it places particular emphasis on the ideas for action on honour-based violence emerging from the research. It is based on activism and attempts to enable social change for women.Full text: http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/czasopismo/589/?idno=14760
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Content available remote The Shia Crescent
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The study focuses on the recent rise in importance of the Shia branch of Islam. Ever since the success of the Iranian revolution, the Teheran regime has persistently claimed to be protector and promoter of the Shia interests outside its borders. Many Sunni rulers in the Middle East fear that the rising position of the Shia and Iran, in particular through its nuclear programme, will alter the traditional balance of power not only in the Gulf region but throughout the Arab world. The study introduces the term “the Shia crescent,” which has become a commonly used expression in popular, intellectual and political debates. As a geo-political term, it is used to describe a region of the Middle East where the majority population is Shia, or where there is a strong Shia minority in the population. The aim of this article is to examine critically the notion of the Shia crescent and suggest possible explanations on what is behind the rise of Shia power, how to account for it, and what are its consequences for the current system of international relations.Full text: http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/czasopismo/589/?idno=14763
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Content available remote Molla Mustafa Barzani in the USA 1975–1979
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The article presents the result of a research on the final years of Mulla Mustafa Barzani on the basis of US intelligence reports concluded in the late 1970s and declassified in 2006, as well as memoirs and articles by U.S. foreign officers. The author focuses on the documents prepared by the CIA in relation with the travel of Barzani to the U.S. for medical treatment. The selected material concerns issues such as: U.S. support for the last Kurdish uprising headed by Mustafa Barzani and its nature, Barzani’s request from the U.S. after the Algiers Accord of 1975, behind-the-curtain negotiations regarding Barzani’s travel to the U.S., and the restrictions imposed on him during his stay. The author also considers the possibilities connected with the phrase “requested asylum” used for Barzani’s application to travel to the U.S.: from misinformation on the part of CIA officer, actually seeking refuge, to a political move aimed at enlisting U.S. support for the Kurdish cause. The author encourages the readers to form their own opinions on the presented matter. However, one indisputable fact remains – the U.S. has always been very much interested in Kurdish nationalism and the Kurds were a significant subject in the Cold War years.Full text: http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/czasopismo/589/?idno=14760
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The processes of separation and unification of states and state systems are permanent elements in international relations. Alongside national development, the ethnic factor became another cause for both integration, as well as fragmentation of states. Nowadays, in Europe and in the world both tendencies appear. We are dealing with aspirations to unify, to focus on shared values, and parallel – to emphasise separateness and separate identity in external relations and inside multinational states. This article concentrates on the disintegration tendencies in the contemporary international order: separatisms, secessions and revolutions. Full text: http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/czasopismo/589/?idno=14760
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The history of the Kurdish community in Russia concerns several centuries. The Kurds who live in the today’s Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), before USSR, constitue about 2,5% of all Kurdish population, which is the most important part of the Kurdish Diaspora. The number of Kurds has increased in the Russian Federation especially after the collapse of the Soviet Union, when the Kurds began to leave Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Central Asia and began to settle in the Russian Federation. This is a brief study of the Kurds in the former Soviet Union with the study of the demography of the Kurds and their development from historical and cultural perspectives. Special attention is paid to the contemporary situation of the Kurds in the post-Soviet states, in particular on the territory of the Russian Federation.Full text: http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/czasopismo/589/?idno=14760
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Content available remote The Research on Political Elites: Steady vs. Modern Theories
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The purpose of the article is to address an existing challenge of conducting the research on political elites in modern societies, particularly in the emerging democracies. In addition to a significant gap between theoretical and empirical data, there is also no common vision of the best approach to the research on political elites, especially in transition countries. Most of all, it is caused by the absence of unified common view on the role and distinct functions of political elites in emerging democracies by the scientific world. Consequently, there is a problem with appropriate estimation and conducting analyses of elites’ actions, their weight, and strategy in decision making process towards or backwards to establishing democratic institutions and implication of democratic values. Thus, the article is to describe and analyse main divergence of views on the role, scope and dimension of research of political elites, provided by different theories, namely Marxist one, the classic political elites’ theory and the theory of democratic elitism in accordance with the challenges and requirements of the realities of the current political process.Full text: http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/czasopismo/589/?idno=14760
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Content available remote National Power. Options for The Republic of Estonia in Case of a Pandemic
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The present paper looks at a purely hypothetical situation where the government of the Republic of Estonia has received information that the World Health Organization has declared the start of an influenza pandemic. The government starts looking for ways to use all means of power it has to protect the population. The foreign policy goals in this situation can be summarized as supporting neighboring countries through sharing expertise when possible, monitoring the actions of Russia which there is general distrust towards, being an equal partner of shared values to the Nordic countries, and negotiating with vaccine producers while looking for any solutions that might make vaccines attainable for more countries. The strength of Estonia lies in using soft power instruments. The country can use its image as a link between Scandinavia and Eastern Europe to act as a bridge to the ideas and values of health protection. Estonia can also share expertise in fields like ICT. Complicated relations with Russia are not easy to overcome even for humanitarian causes which suggests the necessity of active involvement in international initiatives. To enlarge the vaccine supply, Estonia is again likely to benefit from international cooperation. Richer states and international organizations can perceive Estonia as wishing to subdue to their own soft power by following their example of inoculating the populace.Full text: http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/czasopismo/589/?idno=14761
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