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Polityka cyberbezpieczeństwa Sojuszu Północnoatlantyckiego

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Lakomy M.

nr 4(349)

143-160

Dynamic development of the Internet since the end of the 20th century, despite its indisputable advantages, opened new challenges to the security of states. The first major cyber-incidents took place in the 1980s and 1990s. Later on they evolved into organized, harmful activities both of states and non-state actors. A breakthrough in this respect took place in 2007, when Estonia became the first country to be massively attacked by politically motivated hackers. It proved that the North Atlantic Treaty Organization was not prepared to fight these unconventional threats. Over the next six years, NATO elaborated a new cyber security policy based on the awareness that ICT technologies are increasingly important for the international environment. This process was accompanied by the development of new structures and institutions, which were tasked to fight cyber attacks. On the one hand, in this context, it is important to underscore that NATO has employed the proper way of countering theses challenges. On the other hand, however, it did not address multiple, still valid dilemmas concerning, among others, the interpretation of article 5 of the Washington Treaty. Finding a way to solve these problems will determine the security of the Euro-Atlantic community in the future.

Cyberzagrożenia na początku XXI wieku

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Lakomy M.

nr 4(345)

205-223

The article tackles the problem of sensitivity to threats that appear in cyber space in the security policies of selected international agents, including among others: the USA, Poland, Israel, Russia, the European Union and the North Atlantic Treaty. Cyber threats intensified with the development of information technology and the popularization of the Internet. Initially they were not very serious attacks done by self-taught programmers. Since mid-1990s the character of the hackers’ activity evolved with growing interest of individual countries in cyber space issues. Many countries, including the USA, Russia and China, began to focus on the development of their potential in this area in order to ensure maximum protection of their critical infrastructure against cyber attacks. In the 21st century the significance of cyber space for international security is constantly increasing. The promptness of response to new problems and the most appropriate path of development of the potential in this area will in the future determine not only the security but to some extent also the status of particular countries on the international arena.

Między rywalizacją a współpracą. Czynnik wojskowy w stosunkach francusko-amerykańskich po 1945 roku

100%

Lakomy M.

tom 36

249-266

This article examines the significance of the military factor in Franco-American relations since the World War II. The relations between France and the United States in many ways can be perceived as unique, especially considering their military dimension. Since the World War II both countries were forced to cooperate closely in the military matters. US became major French partner and ally until Charles de Gaulle became a president of the 5th Republic. Although France was dependant on the American military assistance programs, it became apparent that both countries had different interests in security area. It was clearly visible during de Gaulle presidency, when France left NATO’s military structure in order to regain its full sovereignty. In the seventies military relations between two countries became slightly better, however France still maintained its “unique” position within NATO. Paradoxically military factor became more important in the bilateral relations in the Post-Cold War Era. France since the beginning of nineties participated in multiple US-led military operations: in Iraq, Balkans or in Afghanistan. Such activity before 1989, basing on Gaullist security policy, would be impossible. Paris systematically reintegrated itself into the NATO’s military structures. This process was completed in March 2009. This article observes two opposite tendencies in these relations. On the one hand, military matters oft en created tensions between France and the United States after World War II. On the other hand however, both countries are close military allies and they frequently cooperate in security matters, especially in the Post-Cold War era. It became apparent during the Nicolas Sarkozy presidency 2007–2012.