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A regional comparison of children’s blood cadmium, lead, and mercury in rural, urban and industrial areas of six European countries, and China, Ecuador, and Morocco

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Hrubá F. , Černá M. , Chen C. , Harari F. , Horvat M. , Koppová K. , Krsková A. , Laamech J. , Li Y.-F. , Löfmark L. , Lundh T. , Lyoussi B. , Mazej D. , Osredkar J. , Pawlas K. , Pawlas N. , Prokopowicz A. , Rentschler G. , Snoj Tratnik J. , Sommar J. , Spěváčková V. , Špirić Z. , Skerfving S. , Bergdahl I. A.

International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health

2023

tom 36

nr 3

349-364

Objectives The authors aimed to evaluate whether blood cadmium (B-Cd), lead (B-Pb) and mercury (B-Hg) in children differ regionally in 9 countries, and to identify factors correlating with exposure. Material and Methods The authors performed a cross-sectional study of children aged 7–14 years, living in 2007–2008 in urban, rural, or potentially polluted (“hot spot”) areas (ca. 50 children from each area, in total 1363 children) in 6 European and 3 non-European countries. The authors analysed Cd, Pb, and total Hg in blood and collected information on potential determinants of exposure through questionnaires. Regional differences in exposure levels were assessed within each country. Results Children living near industrial “hot-spots” had B-Cd 1.6 (95% CI: 1.4–1.9) times higher in the Czech Republic and 2.1 (95% CI:1.6–2.8) times higher in Poland, as compared to urban children in the same countries (geometric means [GM]: 0.13 μg/l and 0.15 μg/l, respectively). Correspondingly, B-Pb in the “hot spot” areas was 1.8 (95% CI: 1.6–2.1) times higher than in urban areas in Slovakia and 2.3 (95% CI: 1.9–2.7) times higher in Poland (urban GM: 19.4 μg/l and 16.3 μg/l, respectively). In China and Morocco, rural children had significantly lower B-Pb than urban ones (urban GM: 64 μg/l and 71 μg/l, respectively), suggesting urban exposure from leaded petrol, water pipes and/or coal-burning. Hg “hot spot” areas in China had B-Hg 3.1 (95% CI: 2.7–3.5) times higher, and Ecuador 1.5 (95% CI: 1.2–1.9) times higher, as compared to urban areas (urban GM: 2.45 μg/l and 3.23 μg/l, respectively). Besides industrial exposure, traffic correlated with B-Cd; male sex, environmental tobacco smoke, and offal consumption with B-Pb; and fish consumption and amalgam fillings with B-Hg. However, these correlations could only marginally explain regional differences. Conclusions These mainly European results indicate that some children experience about doubled exposures to toxic elements just because of where they live. These exposures are unsafe, identifiable, and preventable and therefore call for preventive actions.

Cadmium, mercury and lead in the blood of urban women in Croatia, the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, China, Ecuador and Morocco

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Pawlas N. , Strömberg U. , Carlberg B. , Cerna M. , Harari F. , Harari R. , Horvat M. , Hruba F. , Koppova K. , Krskova A. , Krsnik M. , Li Y.-F. , Löfmark L. , Lundh T. , Lundström N.-G. , Lyoussi B. , Markiewicz-Górka I. , Mazej D. , Osredkar J. , Pawlas K. , Rentschler G. , Spevackova V. , Spiric Z. , Tratnik J. S. , Vadla D. , Zizi S. , Skerfving S. , Bergdahl I. A.

International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health

2013

tom 26

nr 1

58-72

Objectives: The aim of the study was to make an international comparison of blood levels of cadmium (B-Cd), lead (BPb) and mercury (B-Hg) of women in seven European, and three non-European cities, and to identify determinants. Materials and Methods: About 50 women (age: 46–62) from each city were recruited (totally 480) in 2006–2009. Interview and questionnaire data were obtained. Blood samples were analysed in one laboratory to avoid interlaboratory variation. Results: Between the European cities, the B-Pb and B-Cd results vary little (range of geometric means: 13.5–27.0 μg/l and 0.25–0.65 μg/l, respectively); the variation of B-Hg was larger (0.40–1.38 μg/l). Between the non-European cities the results for B-Pb, B-Cd and B-Hg were 19.2–68.0, 0.39–0.99 and 1.01–2.73 μg/l, respectively. Smoking was a statistically signifi cant determinant for B-Cd, while fi sh and shellfi sh intakes contributed to B-Hg and B-Pb, amalgam fi llings also contributed to B-Hg. Conclusions: The present results confi rm the previous results from children; the exposure to lead and cadmium varies only little between different European cities suggesting that other factors than the living area are more important. The study also confi rms the previous fi ndings of higher cadmium and lead levels in some non-European cities. The geographical variation for mercury is signifi cant.