Climate Change and Rural Out-migration in Himalaya

• Autorzy: Prakash C. Tiwari , Bhagwati Joshi
• Języki publikacji: EN

Abstrakty

EN

This paper examines linkages between climate change and rural out-migration in Himalaya. Subsistence agriculture constitutes the main source of food and rural livelihoods in the region although the availability of arable land is severely limited and crop productivity is low. The constraints of the subsistence economy compel a large proportion of the adult male population to outmigrate from the mountain region in search of livelihoods and employment. Changing climatic conditions have stressed Himalayan agricultural and livelihood systems through higher mean annual temperatures and melting of glaciers and snow, altered precipitation patterns and hydrological disruptions, and more frequent and severe extreme weather events. The amount of rainfall events and number of rainy days has declined respectively by 52% and 34% during the last ten years and the incidence of high intensity rainfall and droughts have increased. These changes have disrupted the hydrological systems and reduced the availability of water resulting in frequent crop failures, declines in irrigation potential (25%), decreased agricultural productivity (26%), and loss of rural livelihoods (34%) in traditional rural sectors. These pressures have contributed to increasing trends of rural out-migration, specifically an overall increase of 2536% between 2001 and 2013. The increasing trend of outmigration among male youth has affected the quality of life of rural women through feminization of mountain agriculture and resource development processes.

Słowa kluczowe

EN

Rainfall variability; extreme weather events; decline in agricultural productivity; loss of rurallivelihoods; feminization of agriculture; climate change

• Wydawca: Sciendo
• Czasopismo: Change and Adaptation in Socio-Ecological Systems
• Rocznik: 2015
• Tom: 2
• Numer: 1

Daty

otrzymano

2014-11-10

zaakceptowano

2015-03-30

online

2015-10-09

Twórcy

autor

Prakash C. Tiwari

• Department of
  Geography, Kumaon University, Nainital 263002, Uttarkhand, India

autor

Bhagwati Joshi

• Department of Geography, Government Post Graduate
  College, Rudrapur, Uttarakhand, India

Bibliografia

• [1] UNEP-WCMC, Mountain Watch: Environmental change andsustainable development in mountains. UNEP, Nairobi, 2012,www.ourplanet.com/wcmc/pdfs/mountains.pdf
• [2] Huddleston B., Atamam E., Towards a GIS-based analysis ofmountain environments and populations. Environment andNatural Resources Working Paper No. 10, Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations, Rome, 2003
• [3] Viviroli D., Archer D.R., Buytaert W., Fowler H.J., GreenwoodG.B., Hamlet A.F., et al, Climate change and mountain waterresources: overview and recommendations for research,management and policy, Hydrology and Earth System Sciences,2011, 15, 471-504
• [4] ICIMOD, Mountains of the World –Ecosystem services in a timeof global and climate change: Seizing opportunities – Meetingchallenges, framework paper prepared for the MountainInitiative of the Government of Nepal by ICIMOD and theGovernment of Nepal, Ministry of Environment, 2010
• [5] Meybeck M., Green P., Vörösmarty C., A new typology formountains and other relief classes: An application to globalcontinental water resources and population distribution,Mountain Research and Development, 2001, 21, 34-45
• [6] Sonesson, M., Messerli B., The Abisko Agenda: Research formountain area development (Eds.), Ambio Special Report 11,Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm, 2002
• [7] Tiwari, P.C., Land Use Changes in Himalaya and their impact onthe plains ecosystem: need for sustainable land use, Land UsePolicy, 2000, 17, 101-111
• [8] Anmol J., Labour migration and remittances in Uttarakhand -Case study report, International Centre for Integrated MountainDevelopment (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, Nepal, 2011
• [9] Eriksson M., Jianchu X., Shrestha A.B., Vaidya R.A., Nepal S.,Sandström K., The changing Himalayas: Impact of climatechange on water resources and livelihoods in the greater Himalayas, International Centre for Integrated MountainDevelopment (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, Nepal, 2009
• [10] Messerli, B., Ives J. D., Mountains of the world – A globalpriority, A contribution to Chapter 13 of Agenda 21, Parthenon,New York, 1997
• [11] IFAD, Rural poverty: The challenge of ending rural povertyreport, Oxford University Press, 2001
• [12] FAO, Food security in mountains – High time for action:Brochure of the International Mountain Day, 2008 http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/mountainday/docs/pdf_2008/IMD08_leaflet_En_LR.pdf
• [13] United Nations, Report of the United Nations Conferenceon Sustainable Development, Rio De Janeiro, Brazil, UnitedNations, New York, 2012
• [14] Borsdorf A., Tappeiner U., Tasser E., Mapping the Alps, In:Borsdorf A., Grabherr G., Heinrich K., Scott B., Stötter J. (Eds.),Challenges for mountain regions: Tackling complexity, Böhlau,Vienna, 2010
• [15] Haigh M., Headwater control: Integrating land and livelihoods,Paper presented at the International Conference on SustainableDevelopment of Headwater Resources, United Nation’sInternational University, Nairobi, Kenya, 2002
• [16] UNDP, Summary of implications from the East Asia and SouthAsia consultations: Asia Pacific human development report onclimate change, Colombo: UNDP Asia Pacific Regional Centre,Human Development Report Unit, 2010
• [17] Woodroffe C.D., Nicholls R.J., Saito Y., Chen Z., Goodbred S.L.,Landscape variability and the response of Asian mega deltasto environmental change, In: Harvey, N. (Ed.) Global changeand integrated coastal management: The Asia-Pacific Region,Springer, 2006, 277–314
• [18] Macintosh D., Asia, eastern, coastal ecology. In: Schwartz, M.(Ed.), Encyclopedia of coastal science, Springer, Dordrecht,56–67, 2005
• [19] Maithani B.P., Towards sustainable hill area development -Himalaya: Man, nature and culture, 1996, 16, 4-7
• [20] Tiwari P.C., Joshi B., Environmental changes and sustainabledevelopment of water resources in the Himalayan headwatersof India, International Journal of Water Resource Management,2012, 26, 883–907, DOI: 10.1007/s11269-011-9825-y[Crossref]
• [21] Hassan R., Scholes R., Ash N., Ecosystems and humanwell-being: Current state and trends, Volume 1: Findings ofthe condition and trends, Working Group of the MillenniumEcosystem Assessment, (Eds.), Island Press, Washington, 2005
• [22] IPCC, Climate change 2014: Impacts, adaptation, andvulnerability, Part A: Global and sectoral aspects, Contributionof Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Summary forpolicymakers, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UnitedKingdom and New York, USA, 2014, 1-32
• [23] IPCC, Climate change 2007: The scientific basis. Contributionof Working Group I to the Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange Fourth Assessment Report, Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, USA, 2007
• [24] Tiwari P.C., Joshi B., Natural and socio-economic drivers of foodsecurity in Himalaya, International Journal of Food Security,2012, 4, 195-207, DOI: 10.1007/s12571-012-0178-z[Crossref]
• [25] Yao T., Duan K., Xu B., Wang N., Guo X.,Yang X., Ice coreprecipitation record in Central Tibetan plateau since AD 1600:Climate of the past discussions, European Geosciences Union(EGU), 2008, 4, 233-248
• [26] Du M.Y., Kawashima S., Yonemura S., Zhang X.Z., Chen S.B.,Mutual influence between human activities and climatechange in the Tibetan plateau during recent years, Global andPlanetary Change, 2004, 41, 241-249
• [27] Ouyang H., Climate changes and water resources managementin the HKH region: Strategy and implementation, PaperPresented at ICIMOD-MAIRS joint International Workshopon Climate Change Impacts on Water/Land and AdaptationStrategies in the Tibet-Himalayan Region, Pokhara, Nepal, 27 –29 June, 2012
• [28] Mukhophadayay S.C., Glaciers and water source appraisalof Himalaya with special reference to Central Himalaya,Uttaranchal, In: Rawat M.S.S. (Ed.), Resource appraisal,technology application, and environmental challenges inCentral Himalaya, Vol 1. Transmedia, Srinagar, Uttarakhand,106–119, 2006
• [29] Xu J., Shrestha A., Vaidya R., Eriksson M., Hewitt K., MeltingHimalayas: regional challenges and local impacts ofclimate change on mountain ecosystems and livelihoods,Status Report, International Centre for Integrated MountainDevelopment (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, Nepal, 2007
• [30] Rawat J.S., Saving Himalayan rivers: developing springsanctuaries in headwater regions, In: Shah B. L. (Ed.), Naturalresource conservation in Uttarakhand, Ankit Prakshan,Haldwani, India, 41-69, 2009
• [31] Seko K., Yabuki H., Nakawo M., Sakai A., Kadota T., Yamada Y.,Changing surface features of Khumbu glacier, Nepal Himalayasrevealed by SPOT images, Bulletin of Glaciological Research,1998, 16, 33-41
• [32] Kadota T., Seko K., Aoki T., Iwata S., Yamaguchi S., Shrinkageof the Khumbu glacier, east Nepal from 1978 to 1995, DebrisCovered Glaciers, IAHS Publication No. 264, Wallingford, UK,2000, 235-243
• [33] Fujita K., Kadota T., Rana B., Shrestha R.B., Ageta Y., Shrinkageof glacier AX010 in Shorong Region, Nepal Himalayas, in the1990s, Bulletin of Glaciological Research, 2001, 18, 51-54
• [34] Tiwari P.C., Land use changes in Himalaya and their impacts onenvironment, society and economy: A study of the Lake Regionin Kumaon Himalaya, India, Advances in Atmospheric Sciences,Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 2008, 25, 1029-1042
• [35] Tiwari P.C., Joshi B., Environmental changes and status of waterresources in Kumaon Himalaya, In: Libor J., Haigh M., PrasadH. (Eds.), Sustainable management of headwater resources:research from Africa and Asia, United Nations University, Tokyo,2005, 109-123
• [36] Oki T., Global water resources assessment under climaticchange in 2050 using TRIP’, Water resources systems –Water availability and global change, IAHS Publ. No. 280,Fontainebleau, France: IAH, 2003
• [37] Stern N., Peters S., Bakhshi V., Bowen A., Cameron C., CatovskyS., et al., Stern review: The economics of climate change, HMTreasury, London, UK, 2006
• [38] Kohler T., Maselli D., Mountains and climate change – Fromunderstanding to action, Geographica Bernensia, Swiss Agencyfor Development and Cooperation, Bern, 2009
• [39] IPCC, Climate change 2007: Impacts, adaptation andvulnerability, Working Group II contribution to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth AssessmentReport, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007
• [40] Beniston M., Mountain climates and climatic change: Anoverview of processes focusing on the European Alps, Pure andApplied Geophysics, 2005, 162, 1587-1606
• [41] Mool P., Glacial lakes and glacial lake outburst floods, ICIMODMountain Development Profile, MDP 2, Kathmandu, ICIMOD,2001
• [42] Yamada T., Monitoring of glacier lake and its outburst floods inNepal Himalaya, Monograph No. 1., Tokyo: Japanese Society ofSnow and Ice, 1998
• [43] Joshi S.C., Joshi D.R., Dani D.D., Kumaun Himalaya: Aperspective on resource development, Gayanodaya Prakashan,Nainital, India, 1983
• [44] Tiwari P.C., Joshi B., Environmental changes and their impacton rural water, food, livelihood, and health security in KumaonHimalaya, International Journal of Urban and Regional Studieson Contemporary India, 2014, 1, 1–12
• [45] Tiwari P.C., Joshi B., Land use changes and their impact onwater resources in Himalaya, In Malik A., Grohmann E., AkhtarR. (Eds.), Environmental deterioration and human health:Natural and anthropogenic determinants, Springer Science andBusiness Media, Dordrecht, 2014, 389-399, DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-7890-0-18[Crossref]
• [46] Aase H.A., Chapagain P., Tiwari, P.C., Innovation as anexpression of adaptive capacity to change in Himalayanfarming: Mountain research and development, 2013, 33, 4–10,DOI: 10.1659/MRD-Journal-D-12-00025.1[Crossref]
• [47] UNEP, The fall of water, United Nations EnvironmentProgramme, 2004, GRID-Arendal. http://www.grida.no/_documents/himalreport_scr.pdf
• [48] Sherpa D., New vulnerabilities for mountain women: A differentlight on the Greater Himalaya, Status Report, InternationalCentre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD),Kathmandu, Nepal, 2007
• [49] Hoermann B., Kollmair M., Labour migration and remittances inthe Hindu Kush-Himalayan region, Status Report, InternationalCentre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD),Kathmandu, Nepal, 2007
• [50] Kollmair M., Manandhar S., Subedi B., Thieme S., New figuresfor old stories: Migration and remittance in Nepal, MigrationLetters, 2006, 3, 151 – 160
• [51] Rasmussen S.F., Parvez S., Sustaining mountain economies:Sustainable livelihoods and poverty alleviation, ThematicPaper for Bishkek Global Mountain Summit, UNEP, 2002
• [52] Leduc B., Shrestha A., Gender and climate change in the HinduKush-Himalayas: Nepal, Case study report, International Centrefor Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu,Nepal, 2008
• [53] Tiwari P.C., Joshi B., Changing monsoon pattern and its impacton water resources in Himalaya: Responses and adaptation,In: Palutikof J., Boulter S.L., Ash A.J., Smith M.S., Parry M.,Waschka M., Guitart D. (Eds.), Climate adaptation futures,Wiley Publishing Company, U.K., 2013, 633-644
• [54] Joshi B., Tiwari P.C., Women and sustainable mountaindevelopment: An illustration of Indigenous women’sadaptation to climate change in Himalaya, In: Aneel S.S.,Haroon U.T., Niazi, I. (Eds.), Proceedings of sixteenthsustainable development conference, Creating momentum:Today is tomorrow, Islamabad: Sustainable Development PolicyInstitute, Islamabad, 2013, 131–144

Identyfikatory

DOI

10.1515/cass-2015-0002