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1

Procesy geomorfologiczne na wybranych wysadach soli w pasie fałdowo-nasuwczym gór Zagros w Iranie

Bukowski Krzysztof

Przegląd Geologiczny

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2020

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Vol. 68, nr 3

167--177

EN

Presently, about 160 salt domes of various sizes exist in the Zagros fold-thrust belt in southern Iran. The salt domes constitute a unique proving ground for research on salt tectonics. In the dry climate that currently dominates in Iran, forms of horizontal salt formations are created, referred to as salt glaciers, in addition to typical steeply falling salt domes. Consequently, it is possible to conduct observations of geomorphological processes developing on the surface of exposed salt rocks and keep a continuous record of their tectonic activity. Salts occurring in that area represent the Hormuz (Hormoz) Formation of the Ediacaran period (Late Neoproterozoic to Early Cambrian). The rocks of the formation usually present a colourful blend of rock salt, anhydrite, black dolomite, shale, and red volcanic tuff, as well as extrusive magmatic and metamorphosed rocks that are interpreted as fragments of deep basement elevated to the land surface by salt domes. The paper describes the geology and geomorphology of the Jashak (Dashti) salt glacier from the Busher Province and two salt domes located on the Persian Gulf Islands: Hormuz (Hormoz Island) and Namakdan (Qeshm Island). The present-day salt dome geomorphology is a result of both climatic effects (precipitation and air temperature) and diapir uplifting forces.

2

Nature and origin of large-scale and intrasalt deformation within the Wieliczka salt mine, Poland

Rowan Mark G., Krzywiec Piotr, Bukowski Krzysztof, Przybyło Jerzy

Geological Quarterly

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2020

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Vol. 64, No. 4

819--837

EN

The Wieliczka salt mine, near Kraków in southern Poland, is a world-famous historical and modern destination for both geoscientists and tourists. Despite numerous publications, there is still a lack of consensus on the nature and origin of the large-scale folds as well as whether the small-scale structures represent tectonic or soft-sediment deformation. In this preliminary work, we offer new ideas on both aspects. At the large scale, we emphasize the mechanical stratigraphy of the layered evaporite sequence, which comprises a thin basal weak layer, a thin strong unit, a thicker weak layer, and a thicker strong unit. We suggest that the inclined to recumbent folds and thrusts formed tectonically due to overthrust shear between the basal detachment and the overriding Carpathian frontal thrust, with different structural styles decoupled by the thick weak layer. At the small scale, we suggest that there was early extension directed toward the east to north-east, followed by contraction vergent toward the north. We infer that there was early, syndepositional gravity gliding down a topographic slope dipping into the coeval Gdów depocenter to the east, and that subsequent north-directed Carpathian shortening generated the small-scale contractional structures as the larger folds were developing.

3

Salt tectonics in front of the Outer Carpathian thrust wedge in the Wieliczka area (S Poland) and its exposure in the underground salt mine

Burliga S., Krzywiec P., Dąbroś K., Przybyło J., Włodarczyk E., Źróbek M., Słotwiński M.

Geology, Geophysics and Environment

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2018

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Vol. 44, no. 1

71--90

EN

Salt deposits in the Wieliczka area (Wieliczka Salt Deposit – WSD) in southern Poland comprise salt-rich strata belonging to an evaporite succession that originated in the Carpathian Foredeep basin in the Middle Miocene Badenian (Serravallian) times, ca 13.81–13.45 Ma. Although they have been mined since the 13th century and decades of investigations provided abundant data on their origin and structure, some aspects of their geological evolution are still not fully understood. This study presents current concepts on the lithostratigraphy and tectonics of the WSD. The salt-bearing facies developed near to the southern basin margin, delineated by the Carpathian orogenic front. Such a location triggered the redeposition of sediments and gravity-driven deformation followed by tectonic deformation related to the forelandward advancement of the Carpathian thrusts. As a result, the WSD consists of folds and slices composed of two main salt members: (1) the stratified salt member, with intercalating salt, sulphates and siliciclastics, and (2) the boulder salt member, built of clays with large, isolated blocks of salt. The stratified member contains abundant meso-scale tectonic structures recording the soft-sediment deformation and deformation related to the northward tectonic push exerted by the advancing Carpathian thrust wedge. The boulder member originated due to the syntectonic erosion of evaporites along the basin margins and their redeposition during progressive northward migration of the Carpathian front. Recent interpretations of seismic data imply that the WSD constitutes the core of a triangle zone developed at the contact of the Carpathian orogenic wedge with the backthrust-displaced foredeep sedimentary fill. Meso-scale examples of sedimentary and tectonic structures in the salt-bearing succession exposed in the underground Wieliczka Salt Mine are described and their formation modes discussed.

4

Rheological properties of the salt in relation to halokinesis

Gacek J.

Mining Science

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2015

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Vol. 22, Special Issue 2

7--14

EN

The article relates to the rheological properties of the salt with respect to halokinesis mainly in terms of microstructures. Phenomena are considered in terms of a non-Newtonian fluid, taking into account anomalies for small scales. Experiment on reviewing the movements that have a direct correlation with the deformation (strain) and stress. In the study, the maximum observed values were measured: the incremental displacement vector and finite displacement vector. These indicators together with the deformations can give us full information about the stress of the rock mass. Results of studies in relation to the larger scale could provide consistent information on the salt layer rheology and resistance or susceptibility to deformation of the underlying layers of the above. This would be important information during the construction of mines (for example: oil rig, pithead,mineshaft), drift mining and strip mining.

5

Heterogeneity of folding in Zechstein (Upper Permian) salt formations in the Kłodawa Salt Structure, central Poland

Burliga S.

Geological Quarterly

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2014

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Vol. 58, No. 3

565--576

EN

Analysis of folds carried out in the Kłodawa Salt Structure (central Poland) showed that the Upper Permian (Zechstein) siliciclastic-evaporitic bed sequence is heterogeneously folded, which resulted from differences in competence of rocks and from bed stratigraphy. Rock salt and potash-rich complexes of each Zechstein cycle are internally folded and contain multiple sheath folds, interpreted as the early sheath folds, originated during lateral flow of salt. These folds are superposed by upright sheath folds inside thick PZ1-PZ2 rock salt complexes. The lack of superposed folds in younger Zechstein salt complexes (PZ3-PZ4) and unconformities between the PZ1-PZ2 and PZ3-PZ4 beds imply that rock salt beds were internally folded prior to diapirism, independently in each salt bed. Two oldest rock salt beds welded during lateral flow and were folded together into upright sheath folds during the upward flow of salt. These superposed folds clustered into subordinary diapirs and pierced through the younger deposits. The latter sunk in salt masses and formed large-scale synclinoria, consisting of beds with fossil early tectonic and sedimentary structures.

6

Jurassic evolution of the Pomeranian segment of the Mid-Polish Trough - basement vs. salt tectonics and subsidence patterns

Krzywiec P.

Volumina Jurassica

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2006

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Vol. 4, no. 1

54-56

EN

The Mid-Polish Trough (MPT) formed the axis of the Polish Basin that forms part of the Permian-Mesozoic system of West- and Central-European epicontinental basins. Prior to its Late Cretaceous-Paleocene inversion, the MPT was filled with several kilometres of Permian and Mesozoic sediments, including thick Zechstein salts that gave rise to the development of a complex system of salt structures in the central and northwest segments of the MPT. Thick Zechstein salts acted on a basin-wide scale as a mechanical decoupling layer during the Mesozoic evolution of the MPT. Due to this regional decoupling effect, Jurassic extensional faulting was mostly restricted to the sub-Zechstein salt basement whilst normal faulting played a subordinate role in the Jurassic syn-extensional sedimentary series that are characterized by gradual lateral thickness changes (Fig. 1A). Basement fault zones were reactivated as reverse fault zones during inversion of the Mid-Polish Trough that led to formation of the Mid-Polish Swell (Fig. 1A). Taking into account: the location of Mesozoic thickness gradients, the structural configuration of the sub-Zechstein basement, and the location of salt structures - a new tectonic map was constructed showing the inferred sub-salt fault zones that were active during the subsidence and inversion of the Pomeranian part of the MPT (Fig. 1B; cf. Krzywiec 2006). The NE boundary of the MPT was generally controlled by the SW margin of the East-European Craton, whilst its SW boundary coincides with a complex system of fault zones most probably inherited from earlier tectonic phases. Comparison of isopach maps of the Jurassic series (Dadlez 2003; Fig. 1C-E) with inferred sub-Zechstein fault zones shows the prominent role of these fault zones in development of the Jurassic sedimentary infill of the Pomeranian segment of the Mid-Polish Trough. The isopach map of Lower Jurassic series (Fig. 1C) shows a distinct thickness increase towards the axial parts of the MPT where they were partly eroded in response to inversion movements. Similarly, Middle Jurassic series have been deeply truncated and partly or even totally eroded due to the inversion-related uplift of the Mid-Polish Swell. Consequently, for these areas, the isopach map given in Fig. 1D shows tentative values only, with observed thickness values being restricted to the marginal and SE axial parts of the basin. Nevertheless, the gross thickness distribution is compatible with the concept of activity along inferred sub-salt basement fault zones controlling basin subsidence. The Upper Jurassic thickness map (Fig. 1E) is the least reliable map due to relatively widespread erosion of this complex caused by inversion and uplift of the axial part of the Mid-Polish Trough. Overall thickness changes within this complex are moderate, and they generally coincide with inferred basement fault zones. Regional thickness increase towards the SE suggests increased influence of the Tethyan domain on evolution of the Mid-Polish Trough.

7

Triassic-Jurassic evolution of the Pomeranian segment of the Mid-Polish Trough-basement tectonics and subsidence patterns

Krzywiec P.

Geological Quarterly

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2006

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Vol. 50, No. 1

139-150

EN

Based on reflection seismic data, a regional tectonicmodel was constructed for the sub-Zechstein basement of the Pomeranian (NW) segment of theMid-Polish Trough (MPT). This model is based on the concept that the thick Zechstein salts acted on a basin-wide scale as a mechanical decoupling layer during the Mesozoic evolution of the MPT. Due to this regional decoupling effect, Mesozoic extensional faulting was mostly restricted to the sub-Zechstein salt basement whilst normal faulting played a subordinate role in the Mesozoic syn-extensional sedimentary series characterized by gradual lateral thickness changes. Locally, normal faulting affecting Mesozoic series triggered the development of salt diapirs. Mechanical decoupling ofMesozoic series fromtheir pre-Zechstein substratum played also an important role during the Late Cretaceous-Paleogene inversion of the Mid-Polish Trough. Taking into account: 1— the location of Mesozoic thickness gradients, 2—the structural configuration of the sub-Zechstein basement, and 3—the location of salt structures, a tectonic map was constructed showing the inferred sub-salt fault zones that were active during the subsidence and inversion of the Pomeranian part of the MPT. A high degree of correlation was achieved between the seismically mapped regional sub-salt structural patterns and magnetic and gravity features, as well as the main inversion structures. Moreover, a very good correlation was established between the inferred basement fault zones and the gross thickness patterns of the Triassic-Jurassic successions. The NE boundary of theMPT was generally controlled by the SW margin of the East European Craton, whilst its SW boundary coincides with a system of fault zones most probably inherited from earlier tectonic phases. Contrary to previous hypotheses, there is no evidence for important strike-slip faulting transverse to the main axis of the Pomeranian segment of the MPT.

8

Structural inversion of the Pomeranian and Kuiavian segments of the Mid-Polish Trough-lateral variations in timing and structural style

Krzywiec P.

Geological Quarterly

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2006

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Vol. 50, No. 1

151-168

EN

Seven high-quality reflection-seismic lines, calibrated by wells, were interpreted in an effort to assess the timing of inversion and the structural configuration of the Pomeranian and Kuiavian segments of theMid-Polish Trough. Seismostratigraphic analyses of the Upper Cretaceous successions imaged by these seismic lines in the NE and SW marginal troughs of the Mid-Polish Swell document important along-strike stratigraphic and structural changes. Thickness variations of the Upper Cretaceous series, combined with the development of erosional unconformities and associated tectonic deformations indicate that inversion movements commenced during the late Turonian and intermittently persisted into the Maastrichtian and Paleocene. Earliest inversion movements were focused on the margins of the Mid-Polish Trough where Mesozoic sequences are decoupled from the sub-Zechstein series by Zechstein salts. Whereas the NE margin of theMid-Polish Trough is devoid of compressionally reactivated salt structures, its SWmargin is characterized by strong inversion- related salt tectonics. Progressive inversion of the axial parts of the Mid-Polish Trough was accompanied by uplift of its pre-Zechstein floor to and above the level of flanking, non-inverted areas, and by deep truncation ofMesozoic series across the culmination of the evolving Mid-Polish Swell. Inversion movements ceased towards the end of the Paleocene, as evidenced by the burial of the Mid-Polish Swell beneath essentially flat lying Eocene and younger series. Turonian-Paleocene inversion of the Mid-Polish Trough is coeval with the inversion of the Bohemian Massif, the North German Basin and the Sorgenfrei-Tornquist Zone. Inversion of the Mid-Polish Trough is considered to have been controlled mainly by compressional intraplate stresses that built up in the Carpathian foreland during the collision of the Inner Carpathian orogenic wedge with the European passivemargin, attesting to their increasing mechanical coupling, commencing during the Turonian. These stresses relaxed, however, with the end-Paleocene onset of imbrication of the Outer Carpathian domain, reflecting decoupling of the Carpathian orogenic wedge from its foreland.

9

Dodatkowa kulminacja solna na SE od wysadu Dębiny

Derda R., Sędor A., Świerczek E.

Technika Poszukiwań Geologicznych

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2005

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R. 44, nr 3

45-52

PL

Interpretacja pomierzonych mezostruktur tektonicznych w rdzeniach wiertniczych, powiązana z analizą profili litostratygraficznych badanych otworów, uzasadnia występowanie dodatkowej elewowanej struktury solnej 200 metrów na SE od wysadu Dębiny. Jej genezę autorzy wiążą z głównym masywem wysadu. Proponowaną interpretację strukturalną udokumentowano szczegółowymi profilami litostratygraficznymi analizowanych otworów, przekrojami geologicznymi, diagramami konturowymi i rozetowymi powierzchni ślizgów i rys, oraz zdjęciami charakterystycznych mezostruktur. Występowanie opisywanej struktury ma istotne znaczenie dla korekty lokalizacji bariery chroniącej środowisko wodne otoczenia kopalni odkrywkowej przed destruktywnym wpływem intruzji solnej.

EN

Interpretation of measured tectonic mesostructures on the cores, related with analysis of lithostratigraphic profiles, allows to think that there is another elevated structure, 200 meters to SE of Salt Dome Dębina. Authors relate its genesis with the Salt Dome main massive. Proposed structural interpretation is documented by detailed lithostratigraphic analysis of wells, geological sections, contour and rose diagrams of slickensides and their slickenlines, and by pictures of the characteristic mesostructures. Occurrence of this structure is importanty for localisation correction of the barier protecting water environment of the open pit surroundings from destructive influence of the salt intrusion.

10

Triassic evolution of the Kłodawa salt structure: basement-controlled salt tectonics within the Mid-Polish Trough (Central Poland)

Krzywiec P.

Geological Quarterly

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2004

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Vol. 48, No 2

123--134

EN

The Mid-Polish Trough formed the axial part of the Polish Basin belonging to a system of the Permian-Mesozoic epicontinental basins of Western and Central Europe. It was filled by several kilometres of siliciclastics and carbonates, including thick Zechstein (approximately Upper Permian) evaporites. TheMid-Polish Trough was inverted in the Late Cretaceous-Paleocene times, when it was strongly uplifted and eroded. The presence of thick salt significantly influenced Triassic evolution of the central (Kuiavian) part of theMid-Polish Trough where the Kłodawa salt structure is located. Analysis of seismic data calibrated by several deep wells point to three main stages of the Triassic evolution of this structure. During Early andMiddle Triassic Kłodawa salt pillow grew above the basement extensional fault zone, during early Late Triassic (approx. time of deposition of the Lower Gypsum Beds) Kłodawa salt structure reached diapiric stage and salt eventually extruded on to the basin floor. Last stage was characterised by rather uniform sedimentation and lack ofmajor saltmovements. Wojszyce salt pillow located north-east of the Kłodawa salt structure grew until the Late Triassic (approx. time of deposition of the Upper Gypsum Beds) when basement fault zone located below it was probably inverted. This inversion triggered formation of the salt-cored Wojszyce Anticline and was followed by localised erosion and rather uniform Norian–Rhaetian (Lower Kłodawa Beds) sedimentation above the anticline. Local tectonic activity below the anticline might have additionally enhanced growth of the Kłodawa salt diapir. The presented tectono-sedimentary model of the relationship between basement and salt tectonics and their influence on the Triassic depositional systems is compatible with results of analogue modelling of linked basement-salt tectonics, and with a model based on mesostructural studies completed for the Kłodawa salt mine.

11

Zapis ruchów neotektonicznych w osadach plejstocenu północno-zachodniej Polski

Kurzawa M.

Biuletyn Państwowego Instytutu Geologicznego

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2004

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nr 407

29-88

PL

Analiza danych wiertniczych oraz wyników badań litostratygraficznych, geofizycznych i geodezyjnych dowiodła, że zróżnicowanie osadów plejstoceńskich wykazuje bardzo wyraźny związek z budową tektoniczną kompleksu permo-mezozoicznego. Miąższość, profil stratygraficzny, wykształcenie facjalne osadów plejstocenu oraz ukształtowanie ich podłoża są dostosowane do rozmieszczenia elementów tektonicznych, takich jak fałdowe formy tektoniki solnej, rowy i bloki tektoniczne. Wyraża się to redukcją miąższości i profilu stratygraficznego osadów plejstocenu leżących na elementach wyniesionych w stosunku do tych, które zostały obniżone. Zmienność wykształcenia facjalnego osadów plejstocenu jest w wielu miejscach związana z rozmieszczeniem fałdowych form tektoniki solnej, co manifestuje się poprzez stopniowy zanik osadów akumulacji wodnej nad antyklinami solnymi. Najbardziej intensywne glaciizostatyczne ruchy pionowe struktur solnych i bloków tektonicznych nastąpiły w interglacjałach podlaskim, mazowieckim i eemskim. Przeliczenie wyników powtórnych pomiarów niwelacyjnych pozwoliło na oszacowanie prędkości współczesnych ruchów pionowych analizowanych elementów tektonicznych na 0,3-2,0 mm/rok, co jest wielkością porównywalną z prędkościami podawanymi dla ruchów plejstoceńskich. Glaciizostatyczne przemieszczenia pionowe między elementami tektonicznymi wywarły decydujący wpływ na rozwój powstających nad nimi osadów glacigenicznych.

EN

The analysis based on drilling, lithostratigraphic, geophysical and geodetic data showed that the spatial differentiation pattern of the Pleistocene cover displays a direct connection with the structural pattern of the Permo-Mesozoic complex. The main features of the Pleistocene cover, such as the thickness, stratigraphic section, facies variability and the shape of the sub-Quaternary surface, are adapted to the distribution of local Permo-Mesozoic tectonic elements, salt tectonic folds, grabens and singular blocks. This is expressed by a reduction in the thickness and stratigraphic section of Pleistocene sediments overlying uplifted tectonic elements, in relation to those which were lowered. Facies variability within the Pleistocene complex is in many places connected with the location of salt tectonic folds, and this connection is manifested by the gradual disappearance of water-laid series over salt anticlines. The most intensive, isostaticaly driven, vertical displacements occurred during the Kromerian, Holsteinian and Eemian interglacial periods. Transformation of repeated levelling data allowed the velocity of recent vertical displacements between examined tectonic elements to be estimated at 0,3-2,0 mm/yr, and this is comparable to the velocity of Pleistocene movements. The glacioisostatic vertical displacements between tectonic elements exerted a decisive influence on the development of their glaciogenic sedimentary cover.

12

Zróżnicowanie struktury wysadu solnego Kłodawy w świetle mezostrukturalnej analizy odkształcania skał

Burliga S.

Technika Poszukiwań Geologicznych

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2003

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R. 42, nr 5

11-17

PL

Wysad solny Kłodawy zbudowany jest z cechsztyńskiej serii ewaporatowo-terygenicznej, należącej do cyklotemów PZ1-PZ4. W procesie formowania wysadu skały te uległy zróżnicowanej deformacji, przejawiającej się obecnie niejednorodnością budowy wewnętrznej struktury. Przeprowadzona analiza odkształcenia skał oparta na mezostrukturach tektonicznych i sedymentacyjnych wykazała, że najsilniejszej deformacji uległy skały w części jądrowej wysadu oraz człony litologiczne złożone z soli kamiennych i potasowo-magnezowych o dużej miąższości. Najmniejsze odkształcenie cechuje dolomity, anhydryty, łupki ilaste i zubry. Nie stwierdzono zmian wielkości odkształcenia w przekrojach pionowych przez wysad. Wskazuje to na równoległy do granic litologicznych transport tektoniczny.

EN

Kłodawa salt structure is composed of Zechstein evaporite-terrigenous series belonging to PZ1-PZ4 cyclothems. During evolution of the structure, the series became variably deformed, which is evidenced at present by not uniform internal structure. The strain analysis based on tectonic and sedimentary meso-structures proved, that the internal part of the diapiric structure and thick complexes of rock salt and potash are generally the most intensely strained domains within the structure. The weakest strain is typical of dolomite, anhydrite, clays and clayey salts. There is no difference in strain in vertical section throughout the salt structure. All these indicate that the tectonic transport was parallel to main lithological boundaries.

13

Geofizyczno-geologiczne badania stropu i nadkładu wysadu solnego "Damasławek"

Krzywiec P., Jarosiński M., Twarogowski J., Burliga S., Szewczyk J., Wybraniec S., Czapowski G., Zientara P., Petecki Z., Garlicki A.

Przegląd Geologiczny

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2000

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Vol. 48, nr 11

1005-1014

PL

Celem prowadzonych prac było określenie budowy geologicznej czapy anhydrytowej oraz nadkładu wysadu solnego " Damaslawek". Podstawowym narzędziem badawczym były wysokorozdzielcze dane sejsmiki refleksyjnej. Dodatkowo wykonano pomiary i interpretację danych geoelektrycznych, oraz reinterpretację archiwalnych danych grawimetrycznych i geofizyki otworowej. Uzyskane dane sejsmiczne charakteryzowały się wysoką jakością. Zintegrowana interpretacja geofizyczno-geologiczna pozwoliła na bardzo precyzyjne określenie głównych i podrzędnych deformacji tektonicznych, rozwiniętych w obrębie czapy oraz w jej nadkładzie. Zidentyfikowano wiele reaktywowanych uskoków inwersyjnych, które najprawdopodobniej przynajmniej częściowo były związane z ruchami przesuwczymi. Analiza sejsmostratygraficzno-tektoniczna pokazała, iż niektóre strefy uskokowe były aktywne również w czwartorzędzie.

EN

The goal of completed research project was to establish reliable geological model of cap rock and overburden of the "Damaslawek" salt dome. High-resolution reflection seismic profiling was main research method used for this project. Additionally, geoelectrical profiling and interpretation as well as reinterpretation of available gravity and well log data was completed. Acquired seismic data were of very high quality. Integrated geophysical-geological interpretation allowed the major and subordinate tectonic deformations present within cap rock and salt dome ś overburden to be precisely distinguished. Numerous inversion faults possibly at least partly related to strike-slip movements were identified. Seismostratigraphic-tectonic analysis showed that some of identified fault zones were active also during the Quaternary.