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1

Contemporary generations of offensive and defensive weapons

Szpakowska Zuzanna

Studia Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego

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2019

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R. 9, Nr 15

261--273

EN

The article deals with the problem of distinguishing between offensive and defensive weapons in the context of international security, and its influence on the evolution of wars with particular emphasis on modern times. The nuclear weapon deserves particular attention because of its dual nature - both offensive and defensive, which resulted, among other things, in the development of a strategy of deterrence. What is more, its presence in the arsenals of the great powers causes that international politics is much more prudent, and the classic, territorial concept of security has lost its importance. By analyzing the most important sources of military threats, the author concretizes her reflections on the example of Poland, and its contemporary situation regarding the issues discussed. The main research problem raised in this article is the question - what is the impact of modern weapons generations on international politics in the context of military security?

PL

Artykuł porusza problem odróżnienia broni ofensywnej i obronnej w kontekście bezpieczeństwa międzynarodowego oraz jej wpływu na ewolucję wojen ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem czasów nowożytnych. Broń jądrowa zasługuje na szczególną uwagę ze względu na jej podwójny charakter - zarówno ofensywny, jak i defensywny, co spowodowało między innymi opracowanie strategii odstraszania. Co więcej, jej obecność w arsenale wielkich mocarstw powoduje, że polityka międzynarodowa jest znacznie bardziej rozważna, a klasyczna, terytorialna koncepcja bezpieczeństwa straciła na znaczeniu. Analizując najważniejsze źródła zagrożeń militarnych, autorka konkretyzuje swoje refleksje na przykładzie Polski i jej współczesnej sytuacji w omawianych kwestiach. Głównym problemem badawczym poruszonym w tym artykule jest pytanie - jaki jest wpływ nowoczesnych generacji broni na politykę międzynarodową w kontekście bezpieczeństwa wojskowego?

2

Iran : analiza możliwości wybuchu konfliktu zbrojnego przez pryzmat teorii stosunków międzynarodowych

Marcinów S.

Wiedza Obronna

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2017

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nr 1-2

73--96

PL

Główną tezą artykułu jest to, że konflikt zbrojny z Iranem jest wysoce prawdopodobny, a działania militarne na mniejszą skalę, jak naloty bombowe lub ataki cybernetyczne są praktycznie nieuniknione. Jest to spowodowane strachem, który jest głęboko zakorzeniony w trudnej historii Iranu, oraz brakiem zaufania do organizacji międzynarodowych. Analizie poddano tło historyczne, od zdobycia władzy przez Reza Szah Pahlawiego w 1925 roku do czasów współczesnych, oraz cztery teorie o stosunkach międzynarodowych: ofensywny i defensywny realizm, neoliberalny instytucjonalizm i konstruktywizm. Każda z teorii pomaga w zrozumieniu zachowania poszczególnych państw i jest związana z możliwym rozwiązaniem dyplomatycznego konfliktu nad programem nuklearnym państwa perskiego oraz wspieraniem organizacji terrorystycznych przez Teheran. Artykuł ukazuje logikę każdego z możliwych rozwiązań oraz ich mocne i słabe strony.

EN

This essay argues that an armed conflict in Iran is highly probable and smaller military actions like air strikes or cyber attacks are practically inevitable. It is due to Iran’s fear rooted in a complicated history and its distrust towards international organizations. This analysis is based on historical background, from the rise to power by Reza Shah Pahlavi in 1925 to modern Iran, and four international relations theories: offensive and defensive realism, neoliberal institutionalism, and constructivism. Each theory helps to explain actors’ behavior and is associated with a possible solution to the diplomatic conflict over Iran’s nuclear program and its support for terrorist organizations. This essay shows the reasoning behind each of the solutions, as well as their strengths and weaknesses.

3

Rola broni nuklearnej w procesie budowania zimnowojennego ładu i jej wpływ na bezpieczeństwo międzynarodowe

Malik N.

Roczniki Studenckie Akademii Wojsk Lądowych

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2017

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R. 1

21--32

PL

Artykuł przedstawia broń nuklearną jako strategiczny instrument kształtujący stosunki międzynarodowe. Szczegółowo opisuje jej rolę w zapewnianiu bezpieczeństwa międzynarodowego w latach 1945 - 1990. W kompleksowy sposób ujmuje proces rozbrojenia.

EN

The article presents nuclear weapon as a strategic instrument that forms international relations. Its role in security ensuring between 1949 and 1990 is closely depicted. The disarmament and arms control process is enclosed in a comprehensive way.

4

Broń jądrowa w Europie: stan obecny i realna groźba jej użycia

Zarychta S.

Kwartalnik Bellona

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2017

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Nr 1

47--72

PL

Broń jądrowa od początku odgrywała główną rolę w kształtowaniu bezpieczeństwa regionalnego i międzynarodowego. Była ważnym elementem strategii Stanów Zjednoczonych i Sojuszu Północnoatlantyckiego. Zmieniające się środowisko bezpieczeństwa zmuszało USA i NATO do wypracowywania nowych doktryn i koncepcji strategicznych w celu zapobieżenia wybuchowi konfliktu zbrojnego, zmniejszenia zagrożeń oraz wzmocnienia wspólnoty zachodniej w tworzeniu stabilnej i silnej Europy Zachodniej. Rola broni jądrowej w strategiach NATO ewoluowała. W koncepcji MC 14/2, zwanej strategią zmasowanego odwetu, decydujące znaczenie przypisano zmasowanemu atakowi jądrowemu lotnictwa strategicznego USA, natomiast w koncepcji MC 14/3, tzw. strategii elastycznej odpowiedzi, broń jądrowa miała być użyta dopiero po jej zastosowaniu przez ZSRR. Na początku lat siedemdziesiątych XX wieku przyjęto koncepcję realistycznego odstraszania. Także w latach zimnej wojny broń jądrowa stanowiła dla NATO parasol ochronny, jaki Stany Zjednoczone rozciągały nad państwami członkowskimi Sojuszu, a odstraszanie nuklearne pozostało fundamentalnym składnikiem koncepcji strategicznych NATO. Sytuacja diametralnie zmieniła się po rozpadzie dwubiegunowego świata. NATO podjęło reformy, które uwzględniały nowe środowisko bezpieczeństwa w Europie.

EN

Nuclear weapons have played the key role in shaping regional and international security from the very beginning. They have been an important element in the strategy of the USA and NATO. The changing security environment has forced America and the North Atlantic Alliance to work out new strategic doctrines and concepts in order to prevent the outbreak of an armed conflict, reduce threats and strengthen the western community in creating a stable and powerful Western Europe. The role of nuclear weapons in NATO strategies has evolved. In the MC 14/2 concept, called the concept of massive retaliation, the main role was given to massive nuclear assault of the US strategic air force, whereas in the MC 14/3 concept, the so-called strategy of flexible response, nuclear weapons were to be used only after they had been first used by the USSR. At the beginning of the 1970s, the concept of realistic deterrence was adopted. Also during the years of the Cold War nuclear weapons were NATO's protective umbrella spread over its members by the USA, and nuclear deterrence remained a fundamental element of NATO's strategic concepts. The situation changed dramatically after the collapse of the bipolar world. NATO has undertaken reforms which take into consideration the new security environment in Europe.

5

Wpływ irańskiego programu nuklearnego na region Bliskiego Wschodu

Otłowski Tomasz

Wiedza Obronna

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2010

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nr 3

23--30

6

Skutki starań Iranu o broń jądrową

Michalski Zbigniew Cezary

Wiedza Obronna

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2008

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nr 2

40--55

7

Układ o nierozprzestrzenianiu broni jądrowej : trudności w jego realizacji

Preus M.

Zeszyty Naukowe AON

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2005

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nr 2(59)

18-31

EN

Nuclear Weapons Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968, as one of the most important disarmament issues, has awoken controversies since its initial phase. The author of the article on the eve of the new NPT review conference has reminded the past misunderstandings and today’s problems as well as the last six consecutive review conferences. Undoubtedly among remarkable achievements of the conference one can include the development and adoption (in 2000) of arms control and disarmament programme by nuclear powers. Its core is formed by: increasing transparency in nuclear weapons potentials as voluntary means of confidence building measures, decreasing the role of nuclear weapons in security policy and military planning, engaging nuclear powers in multilateral disarmament talks as soon as possible. Finally, the author wonders if the consolidation of non-aligned states, unsatisfied with the passive attitude of nuclear powers, will not influence the treaty in a negative way. If the non-aligned states decided to leave the NPT regime, it would undermine the very sense of the treaty. That would cause irreversible harm to the NPT regime just at its seventh review conference.

8

Terroryzm biologiczny i jądrowy

Harmata W.

Zeszyty Naukowe AON

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2003

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nr 1(50)A Numer specjalny

41-55

9

Teoria globalnej wojny jądrowej

Wyszczelski L.

Zeszyty Naukowe AON

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2002

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nr 3-4(48-49)

133-151

EN

Nuclear weapon appeared as a fighting means and was used in 1945. It was recognised as revolutionary for the art of war. The theory of a global nuclear war as developed in the field of war theory in the late 40s of the 20th century. Its creators were mainly Americans, partly the French and the British. The author outlines the history of this theory development, its creators and the basic assumptions. He proves that in the initial stage nuclear weapon was supposed to be carried by strategic bombers, whereas in the late 50s by missiles, mainly ballistic ones. There are presented viewpoints of such theoreticians as: the Americans - Henry Kahn, Maxwell d. Taylor, William Kaufmann, Henry Kissingier, Bernard Brodie, the British - Brasil Henri Liddell-Hart and the French - Charles Ailleret and A. Beaufre. The common feature of their viewpoints was the assumption that nuclear weapon was to dominate military operations in a future war. Some theoreticians even wrote about eliminating other combat means. Thereby the necessity to break away with currently existing principles of art of war and to develop new ones was proved. The theory of a global nuclear war dominated the military thought and doctrines of leading world countries until the 60s. Since then it was gradually replaced by realistic deterrence concepts and thus going away from the vision of a global nuclear war. It became history at the beginning of the 70s when the superpowers adopted the strategy of realistic deterrence.

10

Czynniki rażenia broni jądrowej. Cz. 2, Promieniotwórcze skażenie terenu

Solarz J.

Zeszyty Naukowe AON

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2002

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nr 3-4(48-49)

152-175

EN

Radioactive terrain contamination is a well-known nuclear weapon destruction factor. Similarly to the other four, its performance may cause serious tactical - operational problems and significant losses in human resources. It is also the only nuclear weapon destruction factor which consequences last long after the explosion, often spread on a vast area. It is assumed that in case of massive nuclear attacks, ground ones in particular, radioactive terrain contamination may lead to a drastic drop of troops' combat potential, their mobility and vitality in an incomparable degree. The article presents the idea of contamination, its sources and probable consequences of its performance on people, terrain, combat equipment and armament. There are shown the principles of radioactive fallout, its movement and ways of contamination zones forming. The Polish and NATO methods of radioactive contamination forecast have been compared. In order to understand the character of various kinds of nuclear radiation, their influence on a human organism is discussed in detail, taking into consideration a real probability of possible strokes.

11

Czynniki rażenia broni jądrowej. Cz. 1, Impuls elektromagnetyczny

Solarz J.

Zeszyty Naukowe AON

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2002

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nr 2(47)

98-117

EN

Nuclear weapon is the most effective, although the least used, means of fighting. Its destructive action cumulates in five factors like airblast, thermal and hard radiation, radioactive terrain contamination and electromagnetic impulse. They are all widely known due to their spectacular performance. The electromagnetic impulse still remains the least known. It has its own specificity showing in destructive impact on technical, mainly electric and electronic systems. However, it does not pose a major threat to people. Its is also specific as far as its destruction range is concerned. In certain conditions it may act at the distance of hundreds of kilometres from the ground zero paralysing functioning the economy of many countries. The article provides information on the idea of the electromagnetic impulse, how it arises and probable impacts on electric and electronic equipment. Additionally, the electromagnetic impulse influence on radio waves propagation has been discussed.

12

Ewolucja sztuki wojennej lotnictwa polskiego w latach 1950-1955

Kmiecik T.

Zeszyty Naukowe AON

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1999

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nr 4(37)

224-236

EN

A successive development stage of Polish air force operational art includes the years of 1950-1955. In those times, the attempts to form our own viewpoints to use air force were finally abandoned and the Russian ones were adopted. The equipment of the Polish air force units influenced significantly the change of opinions in the air force operational art and tactics. The Polish Air Force Command started to work out the concept to use air force in the middle of 1951. It was stated that the task of the air force was to co-operate with all kinds of land forces and the navy. Effective use of the air force required concentrating its efforts on main directions, spreading of efforts was thought to be inadmissible. In offensive operations, the air force tasks included, like during the Second World War, three stages: preparing an air assault, assault air support and air force accompanying attacking forces. In the years 1954 and 1955, a different character of future war was noticed. Massive use of nuclear weapons was not forecast at that time. It was thought that using atomic arms would not change basic rules of armed fighting, armoured troops, artillery and air force would still decide of the advantage and only few atomic explosions would allow for a fast manoeuvre. The role of air force increased since the moment of nuclear weapon appeared because an aircraft was at that time capable of carrying ABC weapons on long distances. The troops’ ordinance in rockets and missiles in the 1950s caused the end of air force domination in carrying nuclear weapon on long distances.

13

Rosyjska triada jądrowa

Malak K.

Zeszyty Naukowe AON

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1998

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nr 4(33)

209-225

EN

Nuclear weapon is Russia’s attribute and the foundation of its power status. Most of its nuclear arsenal is included in the structure of Strategic Operations Rocket Forces. The author presents their organisational structure, the armament and tasks of their all components: Strategic Rocket Forces, Strategic Air Force, Naval Strategic Force, Anti-Rocket Defence Forces and Space Forces. The concept of Strategic Operations Rocket Forces restructuring has been presented. It assumes that balancing the conventional forces weaknesses requires upkeeping the nuclear potential on an appropriate level. A simultaneous modernisation and restructuring of nuclear forces will enable the reduction of expenditures for other fields. The idea of the reform is to reduce the number of armed forces with increasing its mobility and armament modernisation at the same time. The future Russian army is supposed to be smaller but more professional. The analysis of the presented material shows that the modernisation of rocket forces proceeds slowly. Their complex reconstructure seems to be postponed for better times. However, the effects of present expenditures decrease will be seen in the first ten years of the 20th century. Till that time, Russia will be in a comfortable situation because due to the situation in conventional forces, the nuclear potential will ensure it an effective protection against any enemy’s attack.