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1

Technika konstrukcji średniowiecznych murów ceglanych na ziemiach polskich

Feduszka J.

Ceramika Budowlana

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2011

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nr 3

27-28

PL

Historycy techniki i historycy architektury, a także archeolodzy opierają swoje spostrzeżenia na temat techniki murarskiej w średniowieczu zasadniczo na luźnym zbiorze wiadomości opartych na obserwacji powierzchni murów. Średniowieczny mur ceglany wykonywano ze zwykłej cegły, przede wszystkim zendrówki i cegły glazurowanej. Ta ostatnia była jednak droższa, ze względu na skomplikowaną produkcję. W XIV i XV wieku m.in. w Małopolsce wraz z rozpowszechnieniem się wątku gotyckiego w układzie cegieł, zaczęto stosować pełnoceglane przekładki w miąższu muru, który nie był już wypełniony, jak wcześniej zaprawą i gruzem, ale pełną cegłą. Jako materiału wiążącego używano zaprawy wapiennej, niekiedy odpowiednio spreparowanej gliny. Wapno na zaprawę wypalano w piecach, często w tych samych, w których wypalano i cegłę. Wapienniki w średniowieczu, w przeciwieństwie do innych epok, znajdowały się na placu budowy, lub w bezpośrednim jego sąsiedztwie.

EN

Historians of art and architectural historians, and archeologists base their findings on the masonry techniques in the Middle Ages essentially a loose set of messages based on the observation of the surface of the walls. Medieval brick wall bricks were made from ordinary, mainly zendrówki glazed and brick. The latter, however, was more expensive, due to the complicated production. In the fourteenth and fifteenth century, including in Małopolska the rise of the Gothic thread in the system of bricks, began to use spacers in the flesh pełnoceglane wall that was not already completed, as previously mortar and rubble, but full of bricks. As the binding material used lime mortar, sometimes appropriately crafted clay. Lime for mortar fired in kilns, often in the same, which fired and brick. Lime in the Middle Ages, in contrast to other eras, were on site, or in its immediate vicinity.

2

Wątki murarskie i wątki polemiczne - o problemach datowania średniowiecznych budowli ceglanych w Kaliszu

Poklewski-Koziełł T.

Kwartalnik Architektury i Urbanistyki

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2005

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T. 50, z. 3-4

194-200

EN

The author argues that the hypothesis that the Old Town area in Kalisz, Great Poland, surrounded by a medieval defensive wall could be considered an urban area which developed in the second half of the thirteenth century has no foundation and has to be refuted. There are hydrological and archaeological arguments in support of this opinion. The existence of St. Stanisław's Franciscan Church and St. Mikołaj's parish Church, both built at the end of the thirteenth century, in the southern part of this area is beyond doubt. On the basis of observations made during the excavations, the author proves that the area to the north of the line connecting the two churches was formed by a meander of the Prosna River. The sandy backwaters and old riverbeds stabilized only at the beginning of the fourteenth century and it was then that the area became suitable for building purposes. The riverbed on the border of the meander was still occupied by the river at the beginning of the seventeenth century. Traces of a fourteenth-century and later settlement were discovered during the archaeological works conduced in this area. The hypothesis that this area was inhabited by people in the thirteenth century was practically ruled out. This is why the author thinks that the thirteenth-century town was situated to the south of the two churches. Janusz Tomala contradicted this opinion in 2004. This researcher a priori expressed the view that the urban area enclosed by the city wall exactly corresponds to the location and shape of the thirteenth-century town. The author is of the opinion that assumptions of this sort always require proof and the results of the study carried out by the author prove that Janusz Tomala's supposition is unjustified. In the second part of his article, the author points out that in Kalisz brick walls built using the so-called Wendish course are characteristic not only of the thirteenth-century structures but of the fourteenth-century buildings as well. The stratigraphy of this kind of course found in brick walls in Kalisz does not correspond to their chronological stratigraphy. In at least two buildings, St. Stanisław's Church and the town's defensive wall, the Wendish course is chronologically divergent. It is separated by a fourteenth-century wall section built using the so-called Polish course. The connection between St. Stanisław's Church and the defensive wall standing above the riverbed of the Prosna River which was still referred to as the new river at the beginning of the seventeenth century is particularly important to our argument. To sum up: The author is of the opinion that the conclusion inferred from the above-presented line of reasoning rules out Tomala's assumption that the brick walls erected using the Wendish course date exclusively from the thirteenth century. The author believes that Tomala's interpretation is methodologically incorrect and that all hypotheses formed a priori and resulting from an attempt to date the urban layout to an earlier time should be refuted. Taking into consideration the obvious facts presented above, the layout of the Old Town in Kalisz has to be dated to the fourteenth century and the time of the rule in Poland of King Casimir the Great.

3

Warsztat budownictwa ceglanego księcia Władysława Opolskiego i jego pojawienie się w Kaliszu (schyłek XIV wieku). Obraz na podstawie analizy wymiarów cegły

Żemigała M.

Kwartalnik Architektury i Urbanistyki

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2002

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T. 47, z. 4

410-417

EN

King Kazimierz the Great built the castle in Kalisz as part of a sequence of municipal defensive facilities in the northern part of the town, next to Toruńska Gate. During the Middle Ages this four-wing and four storey edifice contained an inner courtyard and was surrounded by a moat. The mediaeval castle burned down in 1537, and was destroyed by fire to such an extent that it was never totally rebuilt. In 1985-1987 archaeological studies of the castle ruins unearthed the foundations of a gate house, located in the former southern wing. It was discovered that the gate had been redesigned already during the Middle Ages. Its state, documented during the excavations, indicates that it had been destroyed by fire, but not in 1537. Presumably, the gate was damaged in 1656 and it certainly functioned in 1564 and 1628, as testified by written sources. The lowering of the threshold of the continuous footing of the gate house and the introduction of a cellar into the foundations had been connected already earlier with changed access to the castle. The new technical solution involved the manner of raising the drawbridge, and consisted of a counterweight. Such a device had appeared in Western Europe already in the course of the fourteenth century, and possibly even earlier. Up to now, the bridge in Kalisz had been ascribed a wide chronological range. Terminus post quern was defined by the time of the construction of the castle - between 1336 and 1343, while terminus ad quem coincided at the latest with the destruction of the gate in 1656. The article intends to establish a more precise date of installing the counterweight in the castle drawbridge. The first option was a dendrochronological study of beams in the gate crossing, and the second was an attempt at dating based on measurements of the brick used for facing the breach in the gate house foundation, executed for the purpose of building a drawbridge outfitted with a counterweight. The author chose the latter approach. Only a single spot was discovered in the examined ruins in which bricks were connected with the brick castle - the outer part of the gate house ground floor and the face of the outer cellar walls. An analysis of the finding led to a differentiation between the bricks of the original fragments and the secondary supplements of the face into two groups: older A and repair B. Counterparts of those sets were found in the castle in Bolesławiec on the Prosna - group B bricks, identified with the redesigning of the castle during the 1380s by Duke Władysław Opolczyk. This is the brick used during the expansion of the castle, placed on top of the original defensive wall from the time of Kazimierz, and the brick from the freestanding octagonal tower. Sets very similar to B group brick from Bolesławiec were found in the town wall in Byczyna, located in Opole (Silesia), some 10 kms from Bolesławiec, and in the face of a castle tower in Ostrzeszów. It is worth stressing that all three constructions were situated in terrains incorporated into the duchy ruled by Władysław Opolczyk: Byczyna - in the duchy of Opole, Bolesławiec - in the region of Wieluń (governed by Opolczyk from 1370 to 1401), and Ostrzeszów in the region of Ostrzeszów, which belonged to the duke of Opole probably from 1375 to 1393. The similarity between the brick from the Bolesławiec "workshop" of Władysław Opolczyk and the brick from the mediaeval constructions in Kalisz was probably not accidental. It is so considerable that the author hazarded a hypothesis claiming that at the turn of the fourteenth century Kalisz found itself within the range of the construction workshops used by the duke of Opole not only in the region of Opole itself (Byczyna), but also in the lands of Wieluń (Bolesławiec) and Ostrzeszów (Ostrzeszów) during the 1380s and the early 1390s. Presumably, the construction "workshop" of the duke of Opole could have made its way to royal lands only after Władysław Jagiełło regained the regions of Wieluń and Ostrzeszów in an expedition waged against Opolczyk in 1393. According to Długosz, Jagiełło captured castles in Olsztyn, Krzepice, Bobolice, Brzeźnica, Wieluń, Ostrzeszów and Grabów on the Prosna. The castle in Bolesławiec on the Prosna was the only one which he did not seize immediately, but besieged, albeit unsuccessfully. Not until the death of Władysław Opolczyk did his widow and sons surrender the castle to the monarch (1401). Apart from the mentioned brick measurements there are also two other categories of sources capable of casting more light. One is the archaeological stratigraphy of the gate-house foundation, indicating that the gate-house cellar existed already prior to the mid-fourteenth century. This assumption is evidenced by findings of coins between the floor beams in the crossing (a Toruń shilling from the time of Kazimierz Jagiellon, 1454-1456, and an unidentified, damaged Teutonic Order coin). On the other hand, written sources have provided two types of information. The privilege issued by Władysław Jagiełło in 1418 contains direct mention of defensive investments; in it, the king permitted the town to conduct free trade and entitled the Town Council to collect market charges, subsequently used for financing the preservation and conservation of the defensive city walls. The second possibility was royal initiative. Władysław Jagiełło who was a frequent visitor in Kalisz, was aware of the degradation of the local defensive walls and up to 1418 personally paid for their upkeep. The content of the document from 1418 indicates that already prior to the issuing of the privilege the town walls had to be repaired, and possibly had already been mended. Such an initiative would have called for financial sources other than the normal revenue of the town. Every researcher examining bricks analyses their size and notices their changeability. These two features can be identified with the progress of time, sometimes with localisation, and in other cases with the investor. All initial premises for further detailed studies are hypothetical. Without forejudging the possibility of generalising the individual examined phenomenon, namely, the distinct similarity between group B bricks from the castle in Bolesławiec on the Prosna and group B bricks from Kalisz Castle, the author believes that in this particular instance an analysis of similarity based on measurement led to a positive conclusion. The author is inclined to place the date of the construction of the new drawbridge cellar in Kalisz Castle in the years immediately after 1394, and to connect it with the activity of the building workshops which during the 1380s developed under the rule of Władysław Opolczyk in the lands of Wieluń and Ostrzeszów, and which at the time of the reign of Jagiełło could have reached Kalisz already as royal workshops. A study of the sizes of the brick, applied for the purpose of stratifying examples of mediaeval brick architecture is, as has been said in the introduction, a controversial method. Nonetheless, in the opinion of the author, researchers dealing with architecture cannot ignore it.

4

Drzwi z ornamentem snycerskim w architekturze średniowiecznej na Śląsku

Legendziewicz A.

Architectus

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2002

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Nr 1(11)

51--60

PL

Zagadnienie średniowiecznej stolarki, w kontekście rozwoju architektury europejskiej, stanowi jeden z ciekawszych obszarów badawczych. Bogactwo form i detali, wpisanych w zmiany epok stylowych, tworzy bogatą mozaiką elementów wypełniających dostojne wejścia romańskich i go-tyckich budowli. Wiele katedr, kościołów, ratuszy i zamków, uznanych za wybitne osiągnięcia myśli ludzkiej, swój indywidualizm zawdzięczająunikatowemu detalowi wnętrz, także drzwiom, będącym integralnym elementem portali. Pośród wielu zachowanych przykładów, oprócz zamknięć metalowych, niewielką acz interesującą grupę stanowią drzwi drewniane, zdobione elementami snycerskimi. Możemy je podzielić na dwie grupy formowania awersu: - drzwi opierzane listwami drewnianymi (i nakładanymi elementami rzeźbionymi), - drzwi z ornamentami snycerskimi.

EN

The subject of mediaeval wood-carving in the context of development of European architecture, is one of the more important areas of investigation. The richness of forms and details imprinted in the changes of style periods, creates an ample mosaic of elements filling the stately entrances of Romanesque and Gothic buildings. Amongst many preserved examples, wooden doors decorated with wood-carving elements, constitute a group, not large but interesting. We may divide them into two groups of the forming of the door obverse: - doors decorated with wooden strips (and imposed carved elements), - doors with wood-carving elements. The origin of form of both groups of wooden doors is rooted in antique art. The porch door of the Santa Sabina Church in Rome may be considered as one of the oldest examples. It was made of cedar wood around the year 430. In the Middle Ages these patterns were copied, referring to outstanding antique prototypes. In the Church of St. Mary on the Capitol in Cologne, there is a door made around 1065, with scenes from the life of Jesus of Nazareth. In Africa, due to advantageous climatic conditions, there is a certain amount of wooden door wings with lattice work of rectangular arrangement. One of the oldest, from Bawuit in Sudan, comes from the 9lh century. The motif of imposing the strips of wood in an arrangement of similar lattice work, appears fairly often in Gothic architecture of Western Europe: in France - the doors of churches in Grannat (14lh century) or Beaune (15lh century), in Italy - the Church of Santa Anastasia in Verona, or in Germany - the door in the church called St. Lorenzkirche in Nurnberg, or the church door wings in Sterzing. In Poland, doors decorated with wooden strips may be found mainly in Pomorze (Pomerania) and in the area of the former State of the Teutonic Knights' Order - in Malbork (Złota Brama -the Golden Gate), also church portals in Gdańsk and Toruń. Only three doors covered with wood-carving motifs have been found in the region of Silesia. From literature we know of two, no longer existing, door wings decorated with wooden strips, from the Church of St. Jerzy (George) in Oleśnica and the parish church in Świdnica. The double-winged door of the parish church in Kłodzko is located in a richly profiled portal with a post. We may assume, that the construction of a doubled portal together with the wings, took place at the same time as the completion of the Garden of Olives chapel, around 1482. In this arrangement, both wings are placed almost symmetrically, however, with differently shaped motifs of wood-carving ornaments. In the east wall of the Hall of Councillors of the Town Hall in Świdnica, in the portal leading to the archives, there was a wooden door with an obverse in the arrangement of two casements. Sculptured motifs with a panel containing the names of the four Evangelists (from the bottom: Lucas, Johannes, Marcus, Mateus), were placed in the centre. We may assume, that the construction of the door should be linked with the rebuilding completion of the Town Hall, around 1536. As may be seen from the examples presented, the wood-carving ornament may not be often found in Gothic entrances, both in Silesia as well as in Poland. The unique artistic and historic value of the door wings in Kłodzko has already been appreciated by architecture researchers at the turn of the 19,h and 20lh century, especially by Bodo von Ebhardt, who during works carried out in the castle of Grodziec used a similar motif for door decoration.