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A review on eye movement analysis in map reading process: the status of the last decade

Krassanakis Vassilios, Cybulski Paweł

Geodesy and Cartography

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2019

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Vol. 68, no. 1

191--209

EN

Eye tracking constitutes a valuable tool for the examination of human visual behavior since it provides objective measurements related to the performed visual strategies during the observation of any type of visual stimuli. Over the last decade, eye movement analysis contributed substantially to the better understanding of how visual attention processes work in different types of maps. Considering the clear need for the examination of map user reaction during the observation of realistic cartographic products (i.e. static maps, animated maps, interactive and multimedia maps), a critical amount of experimental studiem were performed in order to study different aspects related to map reading process by the cartographic community. The foundation of these studies is based on theories and models that have been developed in similar research domains (i.e. psychology, neuroscience etc.), while the research outcomes that produced over these years can be used directly for the design of more effective and efficient maps. The aim of the present article is to summarize and present the current panorama of the existing eye tracking studies in cartographic research appeared over the last decade. Additionally, methodological contributions (including analysis tools) of cartographic society in the field of eye movement analysis are reported, while existing challenges and future perspectives are also discussed.

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Levels and properties of map perception

Żyszkowska W.

Polish Cartographical Review

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2017

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Vol. 49, No. 1

17--26

EN

Map perception consists of numerous processes of information processing, taking place almost simultaneously at different levels and stages which makes it conditioned by many factors. In the article, a review of processes related to the perception of a map as well as levels and properties of perception which impact its course and the nature of information obtained from a map is presented. The most important process constituting the basis of a map perception is a visual search (eye movement). However, as stated based on the studies, the process is individual depending on the purpose of map perception and it may be guided by its image (visual search guidance) or by the knowledge of users (cognitive search guidance). Perception can take place according to various schemes - “local-to-global” or “global-to-local”, or in accordance with the guided search theory. Perception is divided into three processes: perceiving, distinguishing and identifying, which constitute the basis to interpret and understand a map. They are related to various degrees of intellectual involvement of the user and to various levels of questions concerning the relations between signs and their content. Identification involves referring a sign to its explanation in the legend. Interpretation means transformation of the initial information collected from the map into derivative information in which two basic types of understanding take place: deductive and inductive. Identification of geographical space objects on the map and the interpretation of its content constitute the basis to introduce information into memory structures. In the brain a resource of information is generated called geographic knowledge or spatial representation (mental map) which may have a double nature - verbal or pictorial. An important feature of mental maps is organization of spatial information into hierarchical structures, e.g. grouping towns into regions as well as deformation of spatial relations between individual elements and their groups independent of consciousness. The process of map perception depends on various factors, including the nature, scale and map content, the degree of its complexity and compliance of the map language with cartographic principles. Important factors also include cartographic competencies of the recipient of a map conditioned by age, education and the task type. It is related to types of information about geographical space: semantic - concerning spatial references of particular objects and structural - connected to relations between elements of a map. Such relations may be determined at the regional or global level, they may concern qualitative or quantitative features as well as changes in time. Nowadays, an important factor impacting the nature and consequences of map perception is the situation in which the process occurs. Traditionally, static and unchanging maps are used under other conditions than computer maps and navigation systems, making it possible to freely zoom in and zoom out the image and its spatial scope as well as to quickly go from one image to another. Today, when the predominant way of map use is their perception on the screens of navigation systems, processes of map perception and factors conditioning it are also significant to understand the process. In the analysis of map perception, also tasks which are implemented using the map and the nature of information obtained by the map user must be taken into account.

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The visual search method in map perception research

Ciołkosz-Styk A.

Geoinformation Issues

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2012

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Vol. 4, no. 1(4)

33--42

EN

The way of presenting reality on a map influences the user’s perception, so it also affects the image of reality created in the user’s mind. Therefore, for centuries maps have been considered cognition tools that influence people’s image of the world. Twentieth-century cartographers came to the conclusion that the centuries-old way of map development based on intuition can and should be modified to better reflect the reality, using theories and methods of research from other disciplines, especially psychology. Taking methods from psychology contributed to the development of cognitive cartography. The basic features that distinguish it from other research directions in cartography are that it focuses on the map user, the analysis of map reading and the interpretation process, using experiment as a basic research method and the transfer of experiences and methods, and often the research problems, from psychology to cartography. [...]

PL

Sposób zaprezentowania rzeczywistości na mapie wpływa na jej odbiór przez użytkownika, a więc rzutuje również na obraz rzeczywistości, jaki zostanie wytworzony w jego umyśle. Dlatego też mapy od wieków były i nadal są uznawane za narzędzia poznania, kształtujące wyobrażenia ludzi o świecie. Dwudziestowieczni kartografowie doszli do przekonania, że wielowiekowy, bazujący na intuicji, sposób opracowywania map nie tylko można, ale wręcz należy zmodyfikować, aby lepiej odzwierciedlały one rzeczywistość, wykorzystując w tym celu teorie i metody badawcze z innych dziedzin, w tym szczególnie z psychologii. Zaczerpnięcie metod z psychologii przyczyniło się do rozwoju kartografii poznawczej. Jej podstawowymi cechami, odróżniającymi ją od innych kierunków badawczych w kartografii, było zwrócenie się w stronę użytkownika mapy, analiza procesu jej czytania i interpretacji, stosowanie eksperymentu jako podstawowej metody badawczej oraz przenoszenie na grunt kartografii doświadczeń i metod, a często również samych problemów badawczych, zaczerpniętych z psychologii. [...]

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Zasady obrazowania INSPIRE, a prezentacja kartograficzna w serwisie geoportal.gov.pl

Gąsiorowski J.

Roczniki Geomatyki

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2010

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T. 8, z. 5

73-77

PL

Odpowiedni dobór środków graficznych w zasadniczy sposób wpływa na percepcję oraz właściwe zrozumienie treści opracowania kartograficznego. W ubiegłym roku, w ramach budowy spójnej europejskiej infrastruktury informacji przestrzennej INSPIRE, opracowane zostały ostateczne wersje specyfikacji danych z pierwszej grupy tematycznej. Specyfikacje te zawierają m.in. wytyczne dotyczące zasad obrazowania dla poszczególnych klas obiektów przestrzennych. Analizując te wytyczne, można zauważyć istotne różnice pomiędzy nimi, a zasadami przyjętymi w serwisie geoportal.gov.pl, odzwierciedlającymi sposób prezentacji kartograficznej, do której przyzwyczajony jest polski użytkownik map bądź serwisów mapowych. Większość tych różnic ma charakter zaledwie niuansowy, jednakże istnieją również różnice znaczące, które skutkować mogą co najmniej niezrozumieniem, a czasem wręcz błędną interpretacją zawartej w opracowaniu treści geograficznej przez użytkownika przyzwyczajonego do polskich standardów. Na rysunku 1 przedstawiono mapę zawierającą treść z pogranicza Polski i Niemiec, przy czym zastosowano odmienne zasady prezentacji kartograficznej po obu stronach granicy. Pokazuje to, jak może różnić się przedstawienie podobnej treści przy zastosowaniu innych zasad obrazowania. W artykule przedstawiono wyniki analizy tych różnic dla następujących tematów z pierwszej grupy INSPIRE: jednostki administracyjne, sieci transportowe, obszary chronione oraz hydrografia.

EN

An appropriate selection of the graphical means has great influence on perception and understanding of a cartographic product content. Last year, under creating of the common, coherent, European Spatial Information Infrastructure INSPIRE, the final versions of data specifications for the first thematic group (Annex I) were developed. Those specifications contain inter alia guidelines connected with portrayal rules for the feature classes. Analyses of these guidelines show some differences were between INSPIRE portrayal rules and rules and standards for Polish cartographic products (including geoportals and other web map services). Most of these differences are not so important, but there are some, which may cause lack of understanding or even incorrect interpretation of the map content by the Polish user. In the paper, an analysis of differences in INSPIRE portrayal are presented for the following INSPIRE themes: administrative units, transport networks, hydrography and protected sites, with portrayal of corresponding feature types in geoportal.gov.pl service.

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Percepcja znaków na mapach gospodarczych w polskich atlasach szkolnych

Żyszkowska W.

Polski Przegląd Kartograficzny

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2009

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T. 41, nr 1

17-27

PL

W artykule omówiono problem percepcji znaków na mapach gospodarczych w polskich atlasach szkolnych w aspekcie zdolności uczniów do rozumienia i zapamiętywania informacji oraz różnic między atlasami szkolnymi trzech polskich wydawnictw: Nowa Era, Wiking i Demart. W drugiej części artykułu wykorzystano wyniki eksperymentu przeprowadzonego w ramach pracy magisterskiej w Zakładzie Kartografii Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego.

EN

The article discusses three issues concerning recognition and memorization of signs on economic maps in Polish school atlases: 1) linking symbols to the phenomena they represent, 2) form of signs (size, shape and color), 3) comparison of the analyzed atlases' functionality. To answer the above questions, an experiment was organized involving 218 elementary school pupils and students of Wrocław University 1st year of geography and 2nd year of cartographic specialization. The subject of research were economic maps prepared basing on maps from school atlases published by Demart, Nowa Era and Wiking publishing houses. Six fictional maps of mining and processing industry were edited in 1:7 500 000, each of them containing 7 signs from the analyzed atlases. Participants were presented with five tasks: 1) linking explanations to particular signs, 2) evaluation of the size of sign groups (too large, too small, correct size), 3) evaluation of association of signs with particular industry (yes, no, rather yes, rather no), remembering which sign shape was most common on maps of mining and processing industry and which colors were used for timber and clothing industries, 5) drawing of the best remembered sign for selected sectors of mining and processing industry. The experiment showed that the signs were well recognized, but it was much easier for participants to associate explanation with signs which showed chemical elements in circles. This supports the obsen/ations of P. Grohmann (1975) on the isomorphism of signs in map perception, as well as his suggestion that picture signs should be placed within closed figures. The results of drawing tasks also supports the views of J.C. Patton and TA. Slocum (1985) on the relative ease with which signs are recognized, but difficulty with which they are recreated. Most participants claimed that the signs on maps were of the right shape and circles, squares and sign colors were easily remembered. Not surprisingly, the number of correct answers grew with the level of education, and geometrie signs proved more difficult for younger participants. Comparison of the maps published by the three publishing houses showed that some sign groups were easier for participants, however it is difficult to announce a definite leader. This, in turn, proves that Polish school atlases are undoubtedly valuable teaching aids.