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1

Research on low-velocity impact resistance and damage characteristics of M-type GFRP foldcore sandwich structure

Yunfei Deng, Yuetong Wang

Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering

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2023

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Vol. 23, no. 3

art. no. e193, 2023

EN

The M-type GFRP foldcore was prepared by thermal pressing method and was bonded with the panel to obtain the complete foldcore sandwich structure. The influence of impact energy and impact position on the damage mode and impact dynamic response under the low-velocity impact of GFRP M-type foldcore sandwich structure is studied through experiment and numerical simulation. The results show that the impact position has a significant influence on the damage mode and impact resistance of the foldcore sandwich structure, mainly fracture damage at Base-impact while mainly tensile damage at Node-impact. The impact resistance of Node-impact is better than the Base-impact. The numerical simulation model can also predict the damage mode and the impact dynamic response well.

2

Experimental and numerical investigation on the multi-optimization of reinforcing the side members of the vehicle structure

Zahedan Nima, Ahmadi Hamed, Liaghat Gholam Hossein

Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering

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2022

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Vol. 22, no. 1

art. no. e25, 2022

EN

The aim of this study is to investigate the improvement in the strength of a top-hat profile hollow-section beam used in a vehicle structure by attaching different shapes of internal reinforcements. The base structure of the beam was first considered as a hat-shape structure which was jointed to a flat plate using spot-welds. Three types of sheet metal reinforcements were formed and attached inside the beam’s structure. Then, they were tested experimentally under low-velocity lateral impact. Also, a numerical simulation is being developed using LS-DYNA explicit code and validated using experimental data. Valid numerical configuration is used to conduct an optimization study on cross-sectional shape of the internal reinforcing component. Optimizations are carried out using single- and multi-objective methods based on Genetic Algorithm approach and the suggested optimum solutions are compared with experimental results. Moreover, to discuss the feasibility of applied reinforcements on side section of a vehicle’s body-in-white, a realistic side-pole crash test is simulated using a validated vehicle model and performance of improved chassis is compared with basic model and results are presented, discussed and commented upon.

3

Simulations and tests of composite marine structures under low-velocity impact

Zhu Zhaoyi, Li Xiaowen, Chen Qinglin, Cai Yingqiang, Xiong Yunfeng

Polish Maritime Research

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2021

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nr 1

59--71

EN

Due to their excellent performance, composite materials are increasingly used in the marine field. It is of great importance to study the low-velocity impact performance of composite laminates to ensure the operational safety of composite ship structures. Herein, low-velocity drop-weight impact tests were carried out on 12 types of GRP laminates with different layup forms. The impact-induced mechanical response characteristics of the GRP laminates were obtained. Based on the damage model and stiffness degradation criterion of the composite laminates, a low-velocity impact simulation model was proposed by writing a VUMAT subroutine and using the 3D Hashin failure criterion and the cohesive zone model. The fibre failure, matrix failure and interlaminar failure of the composite structures could be determined by this model. The predicted mechanical behaviours of the composite laminates with different layup forms were verified through comparisons with the impact test results, which revealed that the simulation model can well characterise the low-velocity impact process of the composite laminates. According to the damage morphologies of the impact and back sides, the influence of the different layup forms on the low-velocity impact damage of the GRP laminates was summarised. The layup form had great effects on the damage of the composite laminates. Especially, the outer 2‒3 layers play a major role in the damage of the impact and the back side. For the same impact energy, the damage areas are larger for the back side than for the impact side, and there is a corresponding layup form to minimise the damage area. Through analyses of the time response relationships of impact force, impactor displacement, rebound velocity and absorbed energy, a better layup form of GRP laminates was obtained. Among the 12 plates, the maximum impact force, absorbed energy and damage area of the plate P4 are the smallest, and it has better impact resistance than the others, and can be more in line with the requirements of composite ships. It is beneficial to study the low-velocity impact performance of composite ship structures.

4

Structural Damage Characteristics of a Layer-to-Layer 3-D Angle-Interlock Woven Composite Subjected to Drop-Weight Impact

Qian Ma, Ke Wang, Shudong Wang, Yiwei Ouyang, Zhiqiang Lin, Wenfeng Shi, Limin Jin, Xianyan Wu

Autex Research Journal

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2021

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Vol. 21, no. 3

293--298

EN

The most attractive structural feature of the three-dimensional (3D) angle-interlock woven structure is that the straight weft yarns are bundled by the undulated warp yarns, which induces the overall good structural stability and a stable fabric structure. Thus the 3-D angle-interlock woven composite (3DAWC) prepared by the vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM) curing process has excellent mechanical properties by using the fabric and epoxy resin as the reinforcement and matrix, respectively. The low-velocity impact damage properties of the composites under different drop-weight energies (70, 80, and 100 J) were tested experimentally. The load–displacement curves, energy–time curves, and the ultimate failure modes were obtained to analyze the performance of resistance to low-velocity impact, as well as the impact energy absorption effect and failure mechanism, especially the structural damage characteristics of the 3DAWC subjected to the low-velocity impact of drop weight. By analyzing the obtained experimental results, it is found that the fabric reinforcement is the primary energy absorption component and the impact energy mainly propagates along the longitudinal direction of the yarns, especially the weft yarn system, which is arranged in a straight way. In addition, as the impact energy increases, the energy absorbed and dissipated by the composite increases simultaneously. This phenomenon is manifested in the severity of deformation and damage of the material, i.e., the amount of deformation and size of the damaged area.

5

Dynamic damage analysis of a ten-layer circular composite plate subjected to low-velocity impact

Raissi Hamed

Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering

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2021

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Vol. 21, no. 3

158--199

EN

A new theoretical solution is presented to determine the stress distribution in a ten-layer simply-supported circular composite plate subjected to the low-velocity impact. The aim of the current study is the investigation of the dynamic analysis of the composite plate when a cylindrical impactor hits the top layer of the plate with an initial velocity of 1 m/s. The plate is made of two adhesive layers adhere two aluminum layers to a six-layer carbon-epoxy laminated plate. The classical non-adhesive elastic contact theory and Hunter's relationship are used to simulate the contact behavior in terms of time and contact radius. By using Hamilton's principle and Layerwise theory, thirty-two equations of motion are derived. Moreover, Johnson–Cook’s criteria, the plastic simulation model, the normal stress–strain failure criterion theory were used for failure analysis of the aluminum, adhesive, and carbon-epoxy layers, respectively. The numerical method was used to solve the thirty-two differential equations of motion based on the finite difference method. Moreover, the relationship between stress and strain is re-written in the numerical code so that the failure criterion theories are satisfied. Moreover, according to the defined failure criterion for each layer, the damage is checked at the end of every time step. In addition, the damping behavior of the composite plate after applying the contact pressure caused by the impact was also investigated. The results showed that the impact resulted in residual stress in the plate.

6

Low-velocity impact behaviour of open-cell foams

Hedayati R., Sadighi M.

Journal of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics

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2018

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Vol. 56 nr 4

939--949

EN

Metal foams are cellular solids that show some unique properties which cannot be found in other natural or human-made materials. While the impact characteristics of closed-cell foams under static and impact loadings appear to be well-studied in the literature, the impact behaviour of open-cell foams is not yet well-understood. In this study, open-cell foams with two different densities are impacted by drop weights with different kinetic energies. The effects of foam density, impactor initial height, and impactor weight on the recorded stresstime, stress-strain, and energy-strain curves are investigated. While the stress-strain curve of closed-cell foams under impact loading usually consists of a single bell, the results of the current study showed that both the stress-time and stress-strain curves of most the samples consist of two consecutive bells. By increasing weight of the impacting weight, the number of bells increases which helps in increasing the impact period and keeping the maximum generated stress low. Compared to closed-cell foams, the open-cell foams can therefore better absorb the energy, as long as the impact energy is relatively small. The relatively low stiffness as well as the presence of large hollow space inside the open-cell foams also makes them favorable for being used as biomedical scaffolds.

7

The influence of impactor energy and geometry on degree of damage of glass fiber reinforced polymer subjected to low-velocity impact

Dadej K., Jakubczak P., Bieniaś J., Surowska B.

Composites Theory and Practice

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2015

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R. 15, nr 3

163--167

EN

The presented research was devoted to determining the influence of impactor geometry on the degree and character of failure of a glass fibre reinforced epoxy matrix subjected to low-velocity impact. Furthermore, the relevance of impact energy and lay-up configuration of each composite plate were analysed. The subject of the tests were autoclave manufactured 8-ply glass/epoxy prepregs of the following lay-up [0/90]2s, [±45]2s and [0/±45/90]s. The laminates were subjected to low-velocity impact tests according to norm ASTM D7136 with the application of hemispherical impactors: 12.7 mm (0.5"), 25.4 mm (1") and 38.1 mm (1.5"), for three impact energies 5, 10 and 15 J. The conducted tests indicate the correlation between the diameter of the indenter and the load applied, on the degree and character of damage of the glass/epoxy composites, i.e. the higher the load, the greater the laminate failure, regardless of the lay-up configuration. Similarly, the degree of failure is greater when the diameter of the hemispherical impactor is smaller. The dominating types of failure are delaminations at the interface between the composite layers, and matrix cracks. This might occur as a result of considerable shear stresses at the laminate interface and delamination observed after impact with a smaller-diameter impactor. This is best observed in the case of a quasi-isotropic lay-up configuration, where the superposition of the delamination surface area was the highest. The use of a hemispherical impactor of the largest diameter causes bending stresses in the lower layers of the composite, and the presence of characteristic cracks in the matrix and/or at the fibre/matrix interface.

PL

Celem pracy było określenie wpływu geometrii wgłębnika na stopień i charakter zniszczenia kompozytów o osnowie epoksydowej wzmacnianych włóknem szklanym poddanych obciążeniom dynamicznym o niskiej prędkości. Ponadto w pracy dokonano analizy wpływu energii uderzenia oraz konfiguracji laminatu o różnym ułożeniu poszczególnych warstw kompozytowych. Przedmiotem badań były 8-warstwowe laminaty o osnowie epoksydowej wzmocnionej włóknem szklanym w układach [0/90]2s, [±45]2s oraz [0/±45/90]s, wytworzone metodą autoklawową. Laminaty zostały poddane testom obciążeń dynamicznych zgodnie z normą ASTM D7136 z zastosowaniem wgłębnika półsferycznego o średnicach 12,7 mm (0,5"), 25,4 mm (1") oraz 38,1 mm (1,5") dla trzech energii uderzenia 5, 10 oraz 15 J. Wyniki przeprowadzonych badań wskazują na wpływ średnicy wgłębnika w zależności od energii uderzenia na stopień i charakter zniszczenia laminatów o osnowie epoksydowej wzmacnianej włóknem szklanym. Wraz ze wzrostem wartości energii obciążenia dynamicznego wzrasta stopień zniszczenia laminatów, niezależnie od konfiguracji warstw. Analogicznie, stopień zniszczenia wzrasta wraz ze zmniejszeniem średnicy wgłębnika półsferycznego. Dominującym charakterem zniszczenia są deliminacje na powierzchni rozdziału poszczególnych warstw kompozytowych oraz pęknięcia. Prawdopodobnie związane jest to z obecnością w strukturze kompozytowej dużych naprężeń ścinających na powierzchni rozdziału warstw i powstawaniem delaminacji przy obciążeniach dynamicznych wgłębnikami o mniejszych średnicach. W szczególności widoczne jest dla laminatu o układzie quasi-izotropowym o największej zmienności ułożenia poszczególnych warstw kompozytowych, w którym odnotowano największą superpozycję obszaru zniszczenia badanych laminatów. Zastosowanie natomiast wgłębnika o największej średnicy powoduje powstawanie naprężeń zginających w dolnych strefach kompozytu i obecność charakterystycznych pęknięć w materiale osnowy i/lub na powierzchni rozdziału włókno-osnowa.

8

Impact behaviour of glass fribre /epoxy composites with nano-enhanced resin after water exposure

Landowski M., Imielińska K.

Advances in Materials Science

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2015

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Vol. 15, nr 2(44)

30--35

EN

Impact behaviour of glass fibre /epoxy composites with nano- SiO2 modified resin was studied in terms of low velocity impact after water exposure. Nanocomposites with 1%, 2%, 3% 5% 7% nano-SiO2 (Nanopox- Evonic) were investigated. Peak impact load and impact damage area as a function of nanoparticle contents were compared for dry specimens and for samples exposed to water (0.7 %wt. 1.7% water absorbed) at 1J, 2J 3J impact energies. For unmodified composite peak force was higher than for 3% modified specimens and higher for dry specimens than those exposed to water. Impact damage areas were plotted as a function of water contents for modified and unmodified samples. Failure modes were illustrated using SEM micrographs. Numeropus matrix cracks were the dominating failure mode in dry speciemens both unmodified and the modified. Fibre fracture was observed at 3J impact energy in all dry unmodified samples, however water exposure prevented early fibre fracture in nanocomposites. The proposed energy absorption mechanism is nanoparticles debonding.

9

Effect of Weaving Structure and Hybridization on the Low-Velocity Impact Behavior of Woven Carbon-Epoxy Composites

Karahan M, Karahan N

Fibres & Textiles in Eastern Europe

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2014

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Vol. 22, no. 3 (105)

109--115

EN

In the current study, the low-velocity impact behaviour of composite materials obtained from carbon and carbon-aramid hybrid woven fabrics of different constructions, produced from the same yarn and under the same production conditions, was determined, and the effects of the weaving structure and hybridisation on the low velocity impact properties were investigated. Depending on the weaving structure, the best results were obtained for twill woven composites. The energy absorption capacity was increased by around 9 - 10% with hybridisation. It was observed that peak load values varied with a coefficient between 0.84-0.97 for hybrid composites, whereas the range was 0.49 - 0.87 for 100% carbon composites, depending on the bending stiffness.

PL

Badano materiały kompozytowe uzyskane z hybrydowych tkanin węglowych i węglowo-aramidowych o różnej konstrukcji. Tkaniny wyprodukowane zostały przy zastosowaniu jednakowych przędz i tych samych warunków produkcji. Badano wpływ zastosowanych tkanin na zachowanie się kompozytów podczas obciążeń realizowanych z małą prędkością. Biorąc pod uwagę strukturę tkanin, najlepsze rezultaty uzyskano przy tkaninach o splocie skośnym. Absorpcja energii była zwiększona o ok. 10% w przypadku hybrydyzacji. Zaobserwowano, że wartości pików obciążenia zmieniały się przy współczynniku 0.84 - 0.97 dla kompozytów hybrydowych, podczas gdy współczynnik ten wynosił od 0.49 - 0.87 dla 100% kompozytów węglowych w zależności od sztywności zginania.

10

The issue of residual strength tests on thin fibre metal laminates

Jakubczak P., Bieniaś J., Dadej K., Zawiejski W.

Composites Theory and Practice

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2014

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R. 14, nr 3

134--138

EN

Modern aircraft structures contain sheathing elements which are supposed to not only carry loads, e.g static ones, but also at the same time possess resistance to corrosion or dynamic impact. As a consequence, new kinds of hybrid materials, e.g fibre metal laminates, were created. They combine the mechanical and physical properties of various materials. Until now, the most common and widespread structures are GLARE® laminates (aluminium/glass-epoxy composites), characterised by high fatigue and static properties, as well as by impact resistance. The concurrent influence of many negative factors during exploitation causes a gradual decrease in the functional properties of these materials. One of the factors affecting e.g. static strength is low-velocity impact. Low-velocity impact often leads to macroscopically invisible damage of the composite structure, with delaminations and ply cracking occurring during impact energy absorption. Fibre metal laminates possess a much better dynamic load-carrying capacity, limiting negative ply cracking in the composite and absorbing some impact energy through elastic-plastic deformation. In order to assess the influence of low-velocity impact on the residual strength of composite materials, Compression After Impact (CAI) tests are carried out. Normalised CAI testing is used for classic 5 mm thick composite structures. However, as the literature suggests, it is not effective in the case of fibre metal laminates, particularly those with a thickness more then 1.1 mm. The work presents an analysis of the possibility of conducting an effective (ensuring valid assessment of strength reduction) CAI test for 1.5 mm thick FML panels after dynamic impact. An alternative workstation construction was proposed, and simulations and experimental verifications were conducted. It was observed that a solution based on the ASTM standard does not apply to thin FML laminated panels. Deformation of the specimen occurs in areas located far from the impact site. As a consequence, the strength values differ neither for plates with impact-induced damage nor ones without it. The proposed alternative holder construction for compression after impact of thin fibre metal laminates plates testing eliminates premature material damage. On the basis of the conducted numerical simulations, it was stated that using the ASTM holder for CAI test leads to the occurrence of the first buckling mode in the damage area, with stress concentration in its vicinity. Such a form of deformation may allow one to correctly assess the influence of impact damage on FML composites.

PL

Współczesne struktury lotnicze zawierają w sobie elementy pokryciowe, które mają za zadanie przenosić obciążenia m.in. statyczne, a przy tym być odporne na korozję czy uderzenia dynamiczne (impact). W związku z tym opracowano nowoczesne materiały hybrydowe, m.in. laminaty metalowo-włókniste, łączące w sobie właściwości różnych materiałów pod względem właściwości fizycznych i mechanicznych. Najpowszechniej znane i stosowane są dotychczas laminaty typu GLARE® (aluminium/kompozyt epoksydowo-szklany), które charakteryzują się wysokimi właściwościami np. zmęczeniowymi, statycznymi i odpornością na uderzenia typu impact. Jednoczesne oddziaływanie wielu negatywnych czynników w czasie eksploatacji sprawia, że parametry użytkowe tych materiałów stopniowo maleją. Jednym z czynników obniżających np. wytrzymałość statyczną jest oddziaływanie dynamiczne o niskiej prędkości. Uderzenia typu impact o niskiej prędkości często powoduje niewidoczne makroskopowo uszkodzenie struktury kompozytowej, która, absorbując energię uderzenia, ulega licznym rozwarstwieniom i pęknięciom osnowy. Laminaty metalowo-włókniste znacznie lepiej przenoszą obciążenia dynamiczne, ograniczając niekorzystne powstawanie pęknięć osnowy kompozytu, m.in. przez absorpcję części energii uderzenia na odkształcenie sprężysto-plastyczne. W celu oceny wpływu uderzeń typu impact na wytrzymałość materiałów, np. kompozytowych, prowadzi się badania m.in. ściskania osiowego płyt po uderzeniu (Compression After Impact). Znormalizowana próba CAI dotyczy klasycznych struktur kompozytowych o grubości około 5 mm. Jak wynika z literatury, nie jest jednak skuteczna w przypadku laminatów metalowo-włóknistych, szczególnie tych o grubościach od 1,1 mm. W pracy przedstawiono analizę możliwości prowadzenia efektywnej (zapewniającej prawidłową ocenę redukcji wytrzymałości) próby ściskania osiowego płyt FML o grubości 1,5 mm po uderzeniach dynamicznych. Zaproponowano własną konstrukcję stanowiska do badań oraz przeprowadzono symulację i weryfikację eksperymentalną. Zauważono, że rozwiązanie opracowane w normie ASTM nie sprawdza się w przypadku cienkich płyt FML. Następuje odkształcenie próbki w strefie oddalonej od miejsca uderzenia. W rezultacie wartości wytrzymałości nie różnią się względem siebie dla płyt bez uderzenia i po uderzeniu. Zaproponowana alternatywna konstrukcja uchwytu do realizacji testów CAI laminatów metalowo-włóknistych po uderzeniach dynamicznych eliminuje przedwczesne uszkodzenie materiału. Na podstawie przeprowadzonych symulacji numerycznych stwierdzono, że zastosowanie tego uchwytu prowadzi do wyboczenia materiału (pierwsza postać wyboczenia) w obszarze uszkodzenia, koncentrując naprężenia w jego okolicy. Taka forma odkształcenia może pozwolić prawidłowo ocenić wpływ uszkodzeń po uderzeniach na wytrzymałość kompozytów typu FML.

11

Low-velocity impact characteristics of composite plates with shape memory alloy wires

Rim M.-S., Kim E.-H., Lee I., Choi I.-H., Ahn S.-M., Koo K.-N., Bae J.-S., Roh J.-H.

Journal of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics

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2011

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Vol. 49 nr 3

841-857

EN

To investigate impact characteristics of shape memory alloy hybrid com- posites (SMAHC), several experiments were performed. Tensile tests of shape memory alloy (SMA) wires were carried out to investigate thermomechanical properties, and low-velocity impact tests of SMAHC plates and conventional composite plates without SMAs at the critical energy level. low-velocity impact tests of several types of composite plates, including composite plates with embedded SMAs/Fe/Al wires and conventional composite plates, were also done. Results of these experiments show that embedding SMAs in a composite plate can improve the impact resistance. Lastly, low-velocity impact tests of SMAHC plates with SMA wires embedded at different positions through the thickness were performed in an effort to improve the impact resistance. Embedding SMA wires at a lower position in the composite plates was the most effective for improving the impact resistance.

PL

Do analizy charakterystyk uderzeniowych hybrydowych kompozytów SMAHC zwierających włókna SMA ze stopów wykazujących efekt pamięci kształtu przeprowadzono szereg badań eksperymentalnych. Przeprowadzono próby na rozciąganie włókien SMA w celu zbadania ich właściwości termomechanicznych oraz niskoprędkościowe testy uderzeniowe płyt SMAHC oraz konwencjonalnych płyt laminowanych przy energii krytycznej. Wykonano także testy dla płyt kompozytowych zawierających włókna SMA/Fe/Al. Rezultaty doświadczeń pokazały, że wbudowanie w strukturę laminatu włókien SMA może zwiększyć odporność kompozytu na obciążenie uderzeniowe. Opisano również badania eksperymentalne płyt SMAHC z włóknami SMA wbudowanymi na różnej głębokości. Wykazano, że najlepsze parametry posiadają kompozyty z włóknami umieszczonymi możliwie daleko od uderzanej powierzchni.