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1

Nowy wykaz polskich nazw geograficznych świata i zasady jego opracowania na tle dotychczasowych publikacji

Zych M.

Polski Przegląd Kartograficzny

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2014

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T. 46, nr 2

140--161

PL

W artykule omówiono nowo wydany Urzędowy wykaz polskich nazw geograficznych świata. Przybliżono zakres jego treści, zawartość i układ poszczególnych części oraz samych haseł, a także sposób doboru nazw. Przybliżono również historię opracowania wykazów zawierających polskie nazwy geograficzne świata oraz zasady ustalania tych nazw.

EN

Official list of Polish geographical names of the world, prepared by the Commission on Standardization of Geographical Names Outside the Republic of Poland, was published at the end of the year 2013. It is the second publication comprising Polish names of all the world. The previous one, titled Polskie nazwy geograficzne świata (Polish geographical names of the world) was published in 1994-1996. The list has the official status, and the Polish names it in-cludes should be used by public institutions performing their activities within the borders of Poland. Its elaboration results also from the recommendation of the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names. The list includes the names of geographical features from all continents as well as undersea features. It does not, however, include the objects which are entirely located within the borders of Poland. The list refers only to the features for which the Polish geographical names are recommended, i.e. names spelled differently than the original ones. The list contains the Polish names of 13,358 geographical features (principal names). Most of them are placed in the chapter with European countries -9646; the most represented countries are Ukraine (2222 features) and Belarus (2020). Since some names are repeated in lists for several countries (names of transboundary features), the total number of names is 14,975. In addition, 238 Polish variant names are also included as well as 254 long forms of names, used mostly in official relations. Compared to the previous publication, the Commission has significantly extended the number of recommended Polish names for geographical features (mostly towns and cities) that lay on areas which belonged to Poland before the second world war. Therefore, the lists of Polish names from Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine have been enlarged. The list is divided into 8 parts (chapters). Seven of them refer to the parts of the world and the last one comprises undersea features. Each chapter begins with a list of recommended Polish names of the great regional units and oceans. Next, the names are posted according to alphabetically arranged countries and non-self-governing territories. Names of geographical features within the countries and territories are divided into 59 categories which appear specifically for each particular country or territory. In the eighth chapter, which comprises undersea features, the names are placed according to their location within 5 oceans, with those located in the Baltic and in the Mediterranean Sea listed separately. Undersea features in chapter 8 are divided into 14 categories. Localities are most numerous of all the categories (5238 features), followed by administrative units (1669) and rivers (667). Each entity referring to a particular object includes its Polish name, the original names (in Romanized form if necessary) and geographical coordinates. Entities are occasionally supplemented with additional information. An index of Polish names completes the publication.

2

Wyspy Nawietrzne i Wyspy Zawietrzne – problemy nazewnicze

Czerny A.

Polski Przegląd Kartograficzny

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2011

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T. 43, nr 4

377--390

PL

Standaryzacja nazw geograficznych polega na regulowaniu procesu spontanicznego tworzenia nazw, a także innych zmian zachodzących w zbiorze toponimów: niektóre nazwy wychodzą z obiegu, inne zmieniają formę (np. Wyspy nad Wiatrem > Wyspy na Wietrze > Wyspy Nawietrzne), a nawet odniesienie przedmiotowe. Standaryzację prowadzą kompetentne organy państwowe, w Polsce – Komisja Standaryzacji Nazw Geograficznych poza Granicami Polski. W trakcie prac nad czwartym wydaniem wykazu polskich egzonimów ustalono nazwy: Wyspy Nawietrzne (‘Windward Islands’) i Wyspy Zawietrzne (‘Leeward Islands’), zmieniając rozstrzygnięcie zawarte w pierwszym wykazie nazw z 1959 r. W artykule przeprowadzono analizę różnych aspektów tej decyzji: językowego, geograficznego, historycznego i filozoficznego. Skuteczne funkcjonowanie toponimów w procesie komunikacji językowej wymaga, żeby nazywany obiekt miał w danym języku tylko jedną, niepowtarzalną i niezmienną nazwę. Umożliwia to jednoznaczną identyfikację obiektów i odróżnianie ich od innych, czyli podstawowe funkcje toponimów. Polskie nazwy Wyspy Nawietrzne i Wyspy Zawietrzne odnoszą się do archipelagów będących częściami Małych Antyli. Źródła historyczne świadczą o tym, że nazwy tych archipelagów (nie tylko w języku polskim, lecz także w innych językach) zmieniały się i nie spełniały wyżej wymienionych warunków. Na przykład w XIX w. Windward Islands, Lesser Antilles i Caribbean Islands były nazwami wariantywnymi, dziś oznaczają inne grupy wysp. Polskie nazwy nawiązują do nazw Islas de Barlovento i Islas de Sotavento, które nadali hiszpańscy żeglarze. Są to nazwy opisowe, charakteryzujące położenie wysp względem wiejących ze wschodu pasatów: Barlovento ‘windward’ leżą bardziej na wschód, a Sotavento ‘leeward’ – bardziej na zachód. Inaczej mówiąc, te przeciwstawne nazwy mają realną motywację. Oba archipelagi różnią się pod względem geograficznym: pierwszy jest łukiem wulkanicznym (między Portoryko a Trynidadem) i charakteryzuje się wilgotnym klimatem, drugi jest łańcuchem niskich wysp koralowych (ciągnących się wzdłuż wybrzeża Wenezueli) i ma suchy klimat. Dawne mapy ilustrują zmiany formy oraz odniesienia nazw. Hiszpańskie nazwy wysp zostały zapożyczone przez Holendrów, Francuzów i Anglików, a następnie (w XVIII w.) przetłumaczone. Anglicy z czasem przenieśli przyswojone nazwy Windward Islands i Leeward Islands na inne grupy wysp: południową i północną część łuku wyspowego Małych Antyli. Zmiana była związana z potrzebami brytyjskiej administracji kolonialnej, a w jej wyniku obie nazwy utraciły motywację i stały się czysto konwencjonalne. Świadczy o tym mapa H. Molla przedstawiająca kierunki wiatrów. Obie nazwy zostały przetłumaczone i trafiły do języka polskiego w XIX w. Były to nazwy przyimkowe utworzone na wzór francuskich i niemieckich. Przed II wojną światową obie nazwy miały różne warianty, a ich odniesienie nie było wyraźnie ustalone (wydawnictwa encyklopedyczne podawały, że Anglicy inaczej dzielą Małe Antyle niż Hiszpanie), czasem używano także nazw angielskich. W latach 1930. pojawiły się współczesne nazwy przymiotnikowe: Wyspy Nawietrzne i Wyspy Podwietrzne, które odnosiły się do kolonii brytyjskich. Po wojnie przystąpiono do standaryzacji polskiego nazewnictwa. Brytyjskie kolonie przestały istnieć, ale ustalono, że polskie nazwy nie odnoszą się do Islas de Barlovento i Islas de Sotavento, lecz do Windward Islands i Leeward Islands. Zgodnie z przedwojennym uzusem przyjęto, że Leeward Islands to Wyspy Podwietrzne (pol. pod ‘under, against’ + wiatr ‘wind’). Ustalono także, że Windward Islands to Wyspy Zawietrzne (pol. zawietrzny ‘leeward’). Był to oczywisty błąd, jednak ta omyłkowa nazwa przyjęła się w polskich publikacjach. Przytoczone cytaty pokazują jednak, że użycie tej omyłkowej nazwy w tekstach geograficznych powodowało trudności komunikacyjne. Niektóre teksty nie dawały się sensownie przetłumaczyć na język polski z użyciem nietrafnie standaryzowanych nazw. Komisja postanowiła naprawić dawny błąd i przywrócić nazwę Wyspy Nawietrzne. Ponadto zniesiono tradycyjną nazwę Wyspy Podwietrzne i ustalono nazwę Wyspy Zawietrzne (od zawietrzny ‘leeward’). Ta nazwa zrywa z tradycją, ale odwołuje się do jednoznacznej terminologii żeglarskiej. Jednocześnie ustalono, że obu nazw należy używać zgodnie z hiszpańskim podziałem Małych Antyli. Z tego wynika, że dla archipelagów Windward Islands i Leeward Islands w języku polskim należy używać oryginalnych nazw angielskich.

EN

Standardization of geographical names consists in regulating the process of spontaneous name formation, and other changes taking place in the set of toponyms: some names cease being used, others change in form (e.g. Wyspy nad Wiatrem > Wyspy na Wietrze > Wyspy Nawietrzne) or even their reference to an object. Standardization is conducted by competent state organs. In Poland it is the Commission on Standardization of Geographical Names Outside the Republic of Poland. In the course of works on the fourth edition of the list of Polish exonyms the following names were agreed upon: Wyspy Nawietrzne (Windward Islands) and Wyspy Zawietrzne (Leeward Islands), thus changing the solution contained in the first list of names from 1959. The article analyzes the various aspects of this decision: linguistic, geographical, historical and philosophical. Efficient functioning of toponyms in the process of linguistic communication requires the named feature to have only one unique and unchangeable name in a given language. It allows for unequivocal feature identification and its differentiation from other features, which is one of the basic functions of toponyms. The Polish names Wyspy Nawietrzne and Wyspy Zawietrzne refer to island groups of the Lesser Antilles. Historic sources prove that the names (not only in Polish, but also in other languages) changed and did not fulfill the above mentioned conditions. For instance, in the 19th century, Windward Islands, Lesser Antilles and the Caribbean Islands were alternate names, while today they refer to different island groups. Polish names draw on the names Islas de Barlovento and Islas de Sotavento, which were given to the islands by Spanish sailors. They are descriptive and characterize the islands’ position with reference to easterly trade winds: Barlovento (Windward) lie more to the east, while Sotavento (Leeward) – more to the west. In other words, there is real motivation behind the contrasting names. Both groups differ geographically: the former is a volcanic arc (between Puerto Rico and Trinidad) and is characterized by a moist climate, while the latter is a chain of low coral islands (stretching along the Venezuelan coast) with a dry climate. Early maps illustrate changes in name form and reference. Spanish island names were adopted by the Dutch, the French and the English and consequently translated. After some time, the English transferred the assimilated names of Windward and Leeward Islands to other groups of islands – the southern and the northern part of the Lesser Antilles arc. The change was linked to the needs of British colonial administration. As a result, both names lost their motivation and became purely conventional. H. Moll’s map depicting wind directions is a proof of this. Both names were translated and entered the Polish language in the 19th century. They were prepositional and were formed after French and German names. Before World War II both had different variant names and their reference was not clearly stated (encyclopedic publications stated that the English divided Lesser Antilles differently than the Spaniards), sometimes English names were used. In 1930s modern adjective names appeared: Wyspy Nawietrzne and Wyspy Podwietrzne and referred to British colonies. After the War, Polish names began to be standardized. British colonies ceased to exist, but it was established that the Polish names do not refer to Islas de Barlovento and Islas de Sotavento, but to Windward Islands and Leeward Islands. According to pre-war usage of the names, it was agreed upon that Leeward Islands are Wyspy Podwietrzne (Polish pod ‘under, against’ + wiatr ‘wind’). It was also established that Windward Islands are Wyspy Zawietrzne (Polish zawietrzny ‘leeward’). This was an evident mistake, but the name was accepted in Polish publications. The quotations show, however, that its usage in geographical texts caused communication problems. Some texts containing the wrongly standardized name were impossible to be translated into Polish. The Commission decided to correct the early mistake and revert to the name Wyspy Nawietrzne. In addition, the traditional name Wyspy Podwietrzne was cancelled and the name Wyspy Zawietrzne (from zawietrzny ‘leeward’) was accepted instead. The name breaks away from tradition, but appeals to unequivocal sailing terminology. At the same time, it was established that both names are to be used according to the Spanish division of Lesser Antilles. This further lead to the conclusion that for the archipelagoes of Windward Islands and Leeward Islands, original English names should be used in the Polish language.

3

Polskie egzonimy w atlasach szkolnych wydanych w latach 1901-1989

Zych M.

Polski Przegląd Kartograficzny

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2006

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T. 38, nr 1

24-45

PL

Celem artykułu jest przybliżenie problematyki stosowania polskich egzonimów w polskich atlasach szkolnych wydanych w XX wieku. Służy temu analiza sposobu stosowania polskich egzonimów w atlasach szkolnych, jak zmieniały się ich relacje z nazwami oficjalnymi i czy ustalenia krajowe i międzynarodowe dotyczące tych nazw były brane pod uwagę przez autorów opracowujących nazewnictwo. Artykuł składa się z dwóch części - wprowadzenia do tematyki nazewnictwa geograficznego oraz analizy nazewnictwa geograficznego stosowanego w wybranych atlasach szkolnych.

EN

School atlases influence not only our common knowledge of the world, but also about the world's names. The way Polish exonyms are presented in atlases is significant. Polish is an inflectional language, therefore exonyms can be declined (case forms); it is also easy to create derivative forms, especially adjectives, which facilitates everyday use of foreign names. In the living language it is necessary to inflect and polonize names, which brings about new exonyms. Exonyms functioning in Polish should also be presented on school atlas maps, for easy identification. The paper presents the analysis of school atlases published in the years 1901-1989. During that time 23 school atlases were published in 111 editions and 38 additional printings of some of them. For the analysis of Polish names 19 atlases (14 titles and 5 editions) and one area from each continent (except Antarctica) have been selected. Polish names used in selected school atlases varied significantly both in their form and location. In analyzed atlases the number of exonyms varies between 39 and 210. Comparison of Polish exonyms in school atlases in the years 1901-1989 shows no major changes in their application. Their frequency in particular atlases depended mostly on the authors' preferences and atlas volume rather than period of publication. Following the regulation of the issue after the second World War, names appearing in atlases of that time were similar. This was also due to the fact that there was only one publishing house, which applied its uniform approach to exonyms. Differences in the early 1900s and between the wars were largely caused by a large number of publishers, who had individual approaches as well as lack of any scientific or official standard. The authors usually prepared their own exonyms basing on various sources. Polish exonyms in school atlases usually defied international regulations in the field. In school atlases numerous exonyms were applied instead of officially approved names.

4

W sprawie oceny, weryfikacji i używania egzonimów na mapach

Czerny A.

Polski Przegląd Kartograficzny

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2001

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T. 33, nr 4

351-364

PL

Niektóre egzonimy (tradycyjne i spolszczone nazwy geograficzne) są wartością, którą trzeba kultywować, ale są również takie nazwy, których użycie nie znajduje uzasadnienia. Artykuł dotyczy zakresu stosowania egzonimów i nazw oficjalnych (endonomów), kryteriów oceny egzonimów będących w użyciu oraz możliwości ograniczenia ich liczby.

EN

In Polish there exists a large number of exonims, i.e. geographical names in polonized versions. They simplify infection and creation of related words or approximate the original pronunciation, e.g. Kuba (Spanish Kuba). For these reasons most state and city na,es have their Polish variants. Organization and unification of Polish onomastics is taken care of by the Commission of Standarization of Geographical Names outside Poland. The first list of Polish Geographical names was published in 1959. Following a UN recommendation, lists of Polish exonims and names of countries, capitals and inhabitants were published in 1994-1996. Approximately 6000 published exonims are used in school atlases, encyclopedias and other publications, although not always in a consistent way. International standarization of geographical names aims to limit the number of exonims in use and their range. UN conferences on standarization of geographical names passed seven resolutions concerning exonims. The most significant is the resolution of 1972, which stated, that: 1) exonims are a living, important part of language; 2) some exonims continue to be used, although they are not needed. It also recommended, that the naming authorities prepare lists of exonims in use and analyze, which names are redundant and should be deleted. Following the UN recommendations, certain suggestions concerning the use of exonims can be formulated: 1. Exonims, which are traditionally established, commonly known and used should be preserved. 2. Outdated exonims should not be brought back into use. 3. Historic names should not be used for contemporary geographic object. 4. Diacritical marks should be respected. 5. Political aspect of exonims should be taken into account (avoid names, which could cause international reactions; they should be shown in smaller print and in perentheses). 6. New exonims should not be introduced (with the exception of genetic namrs accepted in popular publications). 7. Endonims should have priority on maps, which are to be used while travelling abroad and on official topographic names (abroad). 8. In most cases, e.g. in school atlases, Polish exonims should be preferred. There are some practical exceptions to these rules; e.g. due to difficult sound clusters in country's name Kyrgystan. it has been polonised, becoming a new exonim - Kirgistan. Some of the names included on the published list raise objections of the conscious users geographic names. Over half of the list is comprised of the exonims, which were in use before World War II, and which are still used today. Some of them can be deleted from the list of Polish exonims. The remaining exonims have been established by the Commission relatively lately; they have been functioning for several to over twenty years. Those are usually spelling polonizations, which enable an average Pole to read the name correctly. Original names should be returned to. Conducted analysis does not justify a radical reduction of polonized names in developing countries. Nevertheless it can lead to a conclusion, that all exonims in use should be reviewed, because some of them could well be deleted.

5

Polskie nazewnictwo geograficzne świata a praktyka kartograficzna

Zych M.

Polski Przegląd Kartograficzny

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2001

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T. 33, nr 1

10--23

PL

W artykule przedstawiono problematykę związaną ze stosowaniam polskiego nazewnictwa geograficznego świata. Podano definicje i znaczenie terminu egzonim, jego rodzaje oraz zastosowanie, kończąc zarysem kwestii związanych z transkrypcją nazw.

EN

Geographic names constitute a very important element of each map, since this is one of the main features characterizing geographical objects. Particular objects have different names in each language, which is the reason why it was decided to standardize geographic names internationally and to recommend the use of geographic names in the official language of each area. However, this process may impoverish local languages in which particular geographic names have often been created over many centuries. Such names are an important element of the Polish cultural heritage,which is one of the reasons for which they should be preserved. Geographic names can be classed into two categories: official and unofficial. The former are the names approved by an agency responsible for geographic names and used within its area of responsibility. The latter group includes all names used in an official language, but differing from the officially appreved forms (Kudowa instead of Kudowa-Zdrój), names in the languages and dialects which are used on a certain area but do not have the states of an official language (e.g. Gduńsk in Cassubian) and also exonyms (names in a language which is not used on certain area - such as Moscau in German or Damascus in English). The ter"exonym" was first used by Marcel Arousseau in 1957 and was then redefined by numerous authors. The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographic Names (UNGEGN), established in 1967 has a very important influence on this term. According to their latest definition an exonym is a name used in a certain language for a place located outside the area, in which that language has the official status, and also differing from an officially approved name. However, particular definition of an exonym often have significant diofferences, and what is even more important, they are not fully precise. The examples of such names probkems may include the areas where there is no official language (Antarctic or the oceans) or when a particular object has no name in an official language (Polish name of CieSniny Duńskie). Other examples may include the names in languages of ethnic minorities. The question aries whether those names should be treated as exonyms, and if so, how different from an official form a geographic name has to be in order to be classed as an exonym. We propose to treat as exonums all names in which a diacritical mark (Peru) and Peru') an article (Gambia and The Gambia) or a declension form (Andy and Andes) was added, omitted or altered. However, the names formed by phonetic transcription or transliteration of an official name and also those formed by translating or omitting a term indicating a particular geographic feature should not be treated as exonyms. Genetically, exonyms can be classed into the following three main groups: 1) proper exonyms - the names characteristic for a particular language; 2) borrowed exonyms borrowing from other languages, and 1) linguistic exonyms (formed by approximation of the official form to the pronunciation and grammatical rules of another language). This last category can be further subdivided into: a) transcription exonyms (transcribed from another language), b) inflection exonyms (formed by adding a prefix, suffix or an article, c) translation exonyms (translated from another language and finally d) errineous exonyms (resulting from an erroneous translation). The transcription of geographic names is a different and equally important problem. The pricess of transcribing is used to perform a phonetic conversion between two languages, and the sounds of the original language are spelled according to the rules of the receiving language. However an important factor against usind the transcription is that more amd more countries using non-Latin alphabets publish topographic maps on which transliteration was applied instead of the ifficial forms.