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1

Simplified diffusion analysis – cartography as a tool for combating pandemics

Budkowski Szczepan

Geomatics, Landmanagement and Landscape

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2023

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no. 1

45--55

EN

The transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus is a complex and intricate process, but it is possible to efficiently track and contain the spread of the pandemic in a given area by observing the regularities of the pathogen’s diffusion. One of the basic measures to hamper the development of the disease was to reduce the intensity of social contact by banning free movement. An adequate response in selected regions, where the virus develops much more rapidly, is crucial and prevents serious economic damage to many industries. The modern perception of cartography as an interdisciplinary tool can contribute to limiting the diffusion of infection through spatial analyses. The aim of this paper is to present cartography as a tool to support the “management” of a pandemic. In terms of methodology, the well-known choropleth map method was employed along with spatial structure analyses. The basic category considered within the framework of statistics and econometrics is spatial relationships formulated for the purpose of achieving the set objective in the form of spatial weight matrices. In the analyses presented here, a modified Moran model was used, within which the Authors applied a row-standardised weight matrix using migration data of individual counties. The paper reviews what has been achieved so far, based mainly on European solutions. Insufficient availability of reliable data needed for advanced models (especially in the initial phase of virus spread) means that using migration data from the nearest neighbourhood can be a viable solution. This approach comes down to an analysis of migration and the population density in the county in question. A simplified analysis with a statistically significant probability allows the identification of counties that could potentially become sites of uncontrolled virus transmission in areas of high population density and high mobility. This is undoubtedly the main achievement of the publication. The results obtained converge approximately with the actual development of a pandemic. The studies carried out indicate that the development of a pandemic is influenced not only by the number of infections, but above all by population density, as well as economic, social, educational and transport networks, as shown by the high Pearson coefficient correlation of 0.83. The analyses indicate the possibility of uncontrolled transmission of the virus in areas of high population density and high mobility

PL

Transmisja wirusa SARS-CoV-2 jest procesem skomplikowanym i złożonym, jednak obserwacja prawidłowości związanych z dyfuzją patogenu pozwala na efektywne śledzenie i ograniczanie wzrostu pandemii na danym obszarze. Do podstawowych działań mających na celu zatrzymanie rozwoju choroby należało zmniejszenie intensywności kontaktów społecznych związanych z zakazem swobodnego przemieszczania się. Odpowiednie reagowanie w wybranych regionach, w których wirus rozwija się zdecydowanie bardziej dynamicznie, jest kluczowe i zapobiega poważnym stratom ekonomicznym w wielu branżach. Nowoczesne postrzeganie kartografii jako narzędzia interdyscyplinarnego może przyczynić się do ograniczenia dyfuzji zakażeń poprzez dokonywanie analiz przestrzennych. Celem niniejszego artykułu jest przedstawienie kartografii jako narzędzia wspomagającego „zarządzanie” pandemią. W zakresie metodologii wykorzystano znaną metodę kartogramu z uwzględnieniem metodyki analiz struktur przestrzennych. Podstawową kategorią rozważaną w ramach statystyki i ekonometrii są zależności przestrzenne sformułowane na potrzeby realizacji założonego celu w postaci macierzy wag przestrzennych. W przedstawionych analizach wykorzystany został zmodyfikowany model Morana, w ramach którego autorzy zastosowali wierszowo standaryzowaną macierz wagową wykorzystującą dane migracyjne poszczególnych powiatów. W artykule dokonano przeglądu dotychczasowych osiągnięć, opartych głównie na rozwiązaniach europejskich. Wykorzystanie faktu problematycznej ilości wiarygodnych danych niezbędnych do sporządzenia zaawansowanych modeli (szczególnie w pierwszym etapie dyfuzji wirusa) prowadzi do konkluzji o możliwości wykorzystania danych migracyjnych najbliższego sąsiedztwa. Taki sposób podejścia do zagadnienia sprowadza się do analizy migracji oraz zagęszczenia zaludnienia danego powiatu. Uproszczona analiza z istotnym statystycznie prawdopodobieństwem pozwala na wskazanie powiatów, które mogą stać się potencjalnie miejscem niekontrolowanej transmisji wirusa na obszarach o dużym zagęszczeniu ludności w koincydencji z ich mobilnością. Jest to niewątpliwie głównym osiągnięciem publikacji. Uzyskane wyniki konweniują w sposób przybliżony z rzeczywistym rozwojem pandemii. Przeprowadzone badania wskazują, że wpływ na rozwój pandemii ma nie tylko liczba infekcji, ale przede wszystkim gęstość zaludnienia, a także powiązania gospodarcze, społeczne, edukacyjne i transportowe, na co wskazuje wysoka korelacja współczynnika Pearson’a na poziomie 0.83. Prowadzone analizy wskazują na możliwość niekontrolowanej transmisji wirusa na obszarach o dużym zagęszczeniu ludności w koincydencji z ich mobilnością.

2

Cartographic imaging of the development potential of Nowy Targ

Mika Monika, Fryźlewicz Patrycja

Geomatics, Landmanagement and Landscape

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2023

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no. 3

19--30

EN

Development potential, studied on the example of the city of Nowy Targ, is defined by the authors as a set of factors contributing to social, economic, and environmental development. Development potential is also understood as a positive change. Properly examined, it provides an opportunity to maintain good practices, such as the protection of ecologically valuable areas or the preservation of traditions directly derived from the region’s characteristics. The methodology used in this study, based on the point bonitation method, has already been applied in the context of ecological and natural assessments of selected territorial units. This publication demonstrates the application of this method to the selection of variables, allowing us to determine the development potential using Nowy Targ as an example. The authors place several indicators in three research sectors: the city’s economy, natural environment, and social development. For the purpose of this study, the city area was divided into 245 squares (PPO) with sides of 500 m × 500 m. The size of the PPOs was chosen with regard to the purpose of the research and adapted to the city’s area. 15 diagnostic variables were adopted in the examination of Nowy Targ’s development potential. The conducted research resulted in a cartographic visualisation of the data using GIS tools. This research provides an opportunity to deepen the analysis of the appropriate choice of development directions when working on municipal development documents. An important advantage of the employed method is its flexibility. A weakness of this method lies in the subjective selection of variables by the researchers and the thematic scope of the chosen research problem. The resulting cartograms allow for a quick assessment of the areas influencing the city’s development or degradation.

PL

Potencjał rozwojowy, zbadany na przykładzie miasta Nowy Targ, jest rozumiany przez autorów jako zespół czynników przyczyniających się do jego rozwoju społecznego, gospodarczego oraz środowiskowego. Ponadto potencjał rozumiany jest jako pozytywna przemiana. Właściwie zbadany daje szansę na zachowanie dobrych praktyk np. ochronę miejsc cennych przyrodniczo czy podtrzymanie tradycji wywodzących się bezpośrednio z cech regionu. Zastosowana w tej pracy metodyka z wykorzystaniem metody bonitacji punktowej, we wcześniejszych badaniach stosowana była w kontekście oceny ekologicznej i przyrodniczej wybranych jednostek terytorialnych. Niniejsza publikacja pokazuje wykorzystanie tej metody w kontekście doboru zmiennych, w celu określenia potencjału rozwojowego na przykładzie miasta Nowy Targ. Autorzy umieszczają w trzech sektorach badawczych szereg wskaźników z zakresu gospodarki, środowiska przyrodniczego oraz rozwoju społecznego miasta. Na potrzeby niniejszego badania podzielono obszar miasta na 245 kwadratów (PPO) o boku 500m x 500m. Doboru wielkości PPO dokonano z uwzględnieniem celu opracowania, w dostosowaniu do powierzchni miasta. W badaniu potencjału rozwojowego miasta Nowy Targ przyjęto 15 zmiennych diagnostycznych. Efektem przeprowadzonych badań była wizualizacja kartograficzna danych z wykorzystaniem narzędzi GIS. Badania te dają szansę na pogłębienie analiz nad odpowiednim doborem kierunków rozwoju podczas prac nad gminnymi dokumentami rozwojowymi. Istotną zaletą wykorzystanej metody jest jej elastyczność.

3

Jak kłamać mapą? – kartogram, czyli metody podziału klasowego

Litwin Urszula, Budkowski Szczepan

Przegląd Geodezyjny

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2021

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R. 93, nr 6

11--16

PL

Kartogram jest jedną z kartograficznych metod prezentacji, sposobem na przedstawienie średniej wartości dowolnego zjawiska w określonych jednostkach przestrzennych (administracyjnych bądź geometrycznych) zwanych polami podstawowymi lub jednostkami odniesienia. Artykuł prezentuje sposoby podziału klasowego i jest próbą oceny kartogramów wykonywanych przy pomocy poszczególnych metod. Celem dokonania wyboru najlepszej z metod zastosowano współczynniki TAI – Tabular Accuracy Indeks oraz BAI – Boundary Accuracy Index będące gwarancją obiektywizmu przeprowadzonych badań.

EN

Cartogram is one of the cartographic presentation methods, a way to present the average value of any phenomenon in specific spatial units (administrative or geometric) called basic fields or reference units. The article presents the methods of class division and is an attempt to evaluate choropleth maps made with the use of particular methods. In order to select the best method, the TAI – Tabular Accuracy Index and BAI – Boundary Accuracy Index were used, which guarantee the objectivity of the conducted research.

4

Comparing continuity and compactness of choropleth map classes

Całka B.

Geodesy and Cartography

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2018

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Vol. 67, no. 1

21--34

EN

Population density varies sharply from place to place on the whole territory of Poland. The largest number of people per 1 km2 is 21,531, while uninhabited areas account for about 48% of the country. Such uneven, non-Gaussian distribution of the data causes some difficulty in choosing the classification method in geometric choropleth maps. A thorough evaluation of a geometric choropleth map of population data is not possible using only traditional indicators such as the Tabular Accuracy Index (TAI). That is why the aim of the article is to develop an innovative index based on distance analysis and neighbour analysis of grid cells. Two indexes have been suggested in this paper: the Spatial Distance Index (SDI) and the Spatial Contiguity Index (SCI). The paper discusses the use of five classification methods to evaluate choropleth maps of population data, like head-tail breaks, natural breaks, equal intervals, quantile, and geometrical intervals. A comprehensive assessment of such geometric choropleth maps is also done. The research was conducted for the whole territory of Poland, using data from the 2011 National Census of Population and Housing. Population data are presented in the 1km grid. The results of the analysis are shown on thematic maps. A compatibility of the choropleth maps with urban-rural typology of the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) was also checked.

5

The beginnings of the choropleth presentation

Korycka-Skorupa J., Pasławski J.

Polish Cartographical Review

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2017

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Vol. 49, No. 4

187--198

EN

The discovery in the cartographic collections of the Faculty of Geography and Regional Studies at the University of Warsaw of an original map by Charles Dupin – the first choropleth map – provided an opportunity to conduct a closer methodological analysis of the map and to investigate the subsequent development of this presentation method during the first half of 19th century. From relatively early on, the accepted principle was for choropleth map presentations to use statistical data still imprecisely referred to as relative, as well as using a distribution series as a method of generalizing data.

6

Redistribution population data across a regular spatial grid according to buildings characteristics

Calka B., Bielecka E., Zdunkiewicz K.

Geodesy and Cartography

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2016

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Vol. 65, no. 2

149--162

EN

Population data are generally provided by state census organisations at the predefined census enumeration units. However, these datasets very are often required at userdefined spatial units that differ from the census output levels. A number of population estimation techniques have been developed to address these problems. This article is one of those attempts aimed at improving county level population estimates by using spatial disaggregation models with support of buildings characteristic, derived from national topographic database, and average area of a flat. The experimental gridded population surface was created for Opatów county, sparsely populated rural region located in Central Poland. The method relies on geolocation of population counts in buildings, taking into account the building volume and structural building type and then aggregation the people total in 1 km quadrilateral grid. The overall quality of population distribution surface expressed by the mean of RMSE equals 9 persons, and the MAE equals 0.01. We also discovered that nearly 20% of total county area is unpopulated and 80% of people lived on 33% of the county territory.

7

Wykorzystanie wskaźników krajobrazowych do oceny zagospodarowania terenu

Bober A., Bielecka E.

Roczniki Geomatyki

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2015

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T. 13, z. 3(69)

209--216

PL

Do oceny stopnia zagospodarowania wykorzystano analizę struktury krajobrazu, na podstawie mierników krajobrazowych, z wykorzystaniem danych o pokryciu terenu, zgromadzonych w TBD. Na podstawie trzech jednostkowych wskaźników krajobrazowych, a mianowicie SIDI, IJI oraz CV obliczono Syntetyczny Wskaźnik Zróżnicowania Przestrzennego – WZP, który umożliwia charakterystykę struktury przestrzennej pokrycia terenu, odzwierciedlającego zagospodarowanie terenu. W celu wykonania interpretacji funkcjonalnej wskaźnika, określono progi, przy których zmienia się zróżnicowanie przestrzenne terenu, wykorzystując w tym celu podział kwartylowy. Wartości poniżej pierwszego kwartyla wskazują niewielkie zróżnicowania zagospodarowania, podczas gdy powyżej trzeciego – duże zróżnicowanie. Obliczenie metryk jednostkowych i opracowanie wskaźnika WZP wymagało wcześniejszej analizy doboru wielkości pola podstawowego oraz rozmiaru ruchomego okna. Określenie wartości progowych, przy których zmienia się zróżnicowanie przestrzenne analizowanego obszaru, wymagało również zrozumienia i odpowiedniej interpretacji charakterystyk statystycznych uzyskanych wyników. Metodę analiz zagospodarowania przestrzennego z wykorzystaniem wskaźnika WZP przetestowano dla dwóch podwarszawskich gmin: Błonie i Leszno.

EN

Landscape structure analysis was used to assess the level of land development. Analysis based on landscape metrices used land cover data, collected in national Topographical Databases. Three individual landscape metrices: SIDI, IJI, CV were used to calculate The Synthetic Spatial Diversity Index WZP, which describes the spatial diversification and structure of land cover, reflecting land development. Calculation of individual landscape metrices and the WZP, index was calculated basing on selection of MMU and size of the movable window. Quartile intervals of WZP index values were used for functional interpretation. The value below 1 quartile shows the very low level of land development, while the great diversification corresponds to the value above 3 quartiles. Determination of the method of ranging, and the range values where the spatial development diversification has been changed, require understanding and interpretation of statistical characteristics of the results. The method of land development analysis using WZP, was tested on two Mazovian communes: Leszno and Błonie.

8

Internetowy Atlas metod kartograficznych

Korycka-Skorupa J., Nowacki T., Opach T., Pasławski J.

Polski Przegląd Kartograficzny

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2012

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T. 44, nr 2

105-119

PL

W artykule przedstawiono internetowy Atlas metod kartograficznych, skierowany do tych, którzy chcą poznać podstawowe zasady redagowania map statystycznych. Autorzy podjęli się analizy pięciu ilościowych metod prezentacji kartograficznej, próbując przedstawić użytkownikowi najważniejsze zagadnienia związane z ich stosowaniem i interpretacją.

EN

The free and all accessible Atlas of cartographic methods has been available on the Internet at www. educarto.pl since May 2012. The atlas was elaborated by the staff of the Department of Cartography of Warsaw University in 2010-2012. Growth of computer technologies has made it possible for everyone to author a map - especially a statistical one. Thus has appeared the need to prepare and make accessible to wider public a more elaborate guide than just a handbook or a set of instructions on how to run the program. The Atlas has been made to cater to the needs of those interested in learning basic rules of statistical map editing, so - of geography students, experts in spatial economy and environmental protection, surveyors. It is educational in character and aimed at showing quantitative methods and forms of cartographic presentation and focusing attention on map interpretation. It presents five quantitative forms and methods of presentation: diagram map, choropleth map, isoline map, dot map and quantitative symbols. The Atlas of cartographic methods is composed of two main parts (Fig. 1). The first part contains three 'chapters' of texts while the second - maps along with short commentaries. The first chapter is an elaboration entitled 'From the history of presentation forms and methods' and is illustrated with old maps. The second one - 'From data to map' - describes the process of editing a statistical map. It deals with data features and the possibilities of their transformation to fulfill the requirements of a specific presentation: - method of data reference (to points, area or line), data character (absolute, relative), method of showing data (continuous, discrete). The third chapter is entitled 'Methods step by step'. Its aim is to acquaint users with basic characteristics of the five forms of cartographic presentation. The second part of the atlas - 'Maps' - is a dynamic internet application and interactive environment for generating atlas full scale drawings. The application was programmed in PHP and is linked to MySQL database. The application's interface design was aimed to support the demonstrativeness of the Atlas - available functions have been limited to a minimum. The GUS (Central Statistical Office) Bank of Local Data resources (www.stat.gov.pl) served as material for elaborating maps in the Atlas. For elaborating a part of the Atlas full scale drawings an earlier prepared group of raster images was used. They were put on the server and shown in accordance with the parameters selected by the user. The remaining full scale drawings were created in a more complex way. Here applications programmed in PHP play an essential part. They process spatial and attribute data and display an automatically created map together with legend. The internet Atlas of cartographic methods can be treated as the first stage of a wider elaboration including all basic forms and methods of presentation.

9

Rola map cyfrowych w systemach zarządzania nieruchomościami skarbu państwa

Filipczak A.

Archiwum Fotogrametrii, Kartografii i Teledetekcji

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2012

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Vol. 23

111--118

PL

Choć obecnie mapy tematyczne są powszechnie używane, ich zastosowanie w zarządzaniu nieruchomościami Skarbu Państwa jest czymś nowym. Jak dotąd do tego typu analiz stosowano głównie zestawienia tabelaryczne i wykresy. W prezentowanym artykule przedstawiono propozycję wykorzystania map tematycznych jako elementu wspierającego efektywne zarządzanie nieruchomościami państwowej jednostki organizacyjnej jaką jest Policja. Wykonane mapy tematyczne, poprzez zastosowanie różnego rodzaju metod prezentacji kartograficznej – kartodiagramów (słupkowych, kołowych), map przedziałów (kartogramów) opracowanych w oprogramowaniu ArcView firmy ESRI oraz MapInfo firmy MapInfo Corporation umożliwiły przeprowadzenie analiz czasowych i jednocześnie wielowątkowych.

EN

While thematic maps are now widely used, their use in the property management is rather new. So far data about property, in property management systems, is visualized mainly in the form of table charts and diagrams. This article presents the possibility of use thematic maps as an element of support for the effective management of Police’s state property entity. For the Police, as managers, thematic maps will meet a number of functions: diagnostic – to allow analysis of current state, control and account – allowing the rationalization of expenditures, and – prognostic – facilitate the realization of strategic goals. Statistical data on managed properties, such as facilities maintenance costs, obtained from the Police Headquarters, were the basis for mapping and analysis. Thematic maps made by applying various methods of cartographic presentation – cartodiagrams (charts), maps of compartments (choropleth map) in software developed by ESRI ArcInfo and MapInfo (developed by MapInfo Corporation) give possibilities of exploratory and multi analysis. The use of thematic maps in the property management system allows the Police on the one hand presentation the descriptive data collected by the Police about the managed property, on the other hand gives the possibility of further analysis and research by seeking spatial and temporal relationships between data on Police Headquarters or stations, and determine their dynamics, and other laws.

10

Niezawodna metoda wizualizacji ilościowych cech przestrzeni leśnej

Olenderek T.

Roczniki Geomatyki

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2010

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T. 8, z. 7

49-56

PL

W niniejszym artykule, przedmiotem badań nie będą mapy opracowywane przez profesjonalistów (np. pracowników biura urządzania lasu i geodezji leśnej), według zasad określonych w Instrukcji Urządzania Lasu, lecz mapy wykonywane okazyjnie, dla doraźnych, przede wszystkim wewnętrznych potrzeb, przez osoby na codzień zajmujące się innymi niż geomatyka sprawami, pracujące w szeroko rozumianym leśnictwie lub ochronie przyrody. Problemy związane z redagowaniem takich map przedstawione zostaną na przykładzie kartogramu, czyli mapy (tak nazywana jest także kartograficzna metoda prezentacji) przedstawiającej, za pomocą barwy lub desenia (szrafu), natężenie cechy lub zjawiska o charakterze ilościowym w odniesieniu do przyjętych pól podstawowych. W dalszej części artykułu dokonano analizy 25 map wykonanych przez uczestników Studium w latach 2003-2008. Rezultaty przedstawione zostały w zasadzie w zgodzie z kolejnymi etapami redakcji kartogramu polegającymi na wyborze: 1) zasięgu terytorialnego mapy, 2) pól podstawowych, 3) danych statystycznych, 4) przedziałów, 5) skali barwnej, 6) legendy, 7) innych elementów treści mapy (m.in. opisów).

EN

The paper presents results of examination of 25 choropleth maps visualizing different features of forests. The maps were prepared by students of postgraduate study .Application of spatial information systems in forestry and nature conservation. at the Warsaw University of Life Sciences. The selection by the map authors of such elements as map extent, statistical data, classes, color range, legend and other elements of a map (e.g. texts) were examined. There are relatively many editorial problems with preparation of choropleth maps. It turned out that almost all analyzed maps contain mistakes. However, only in few cases these mistakes made the use of map significantly difficult. Most of the solutions applied by the authors may be assessed as satisfactory. Therefore, choropleth maps may be considered as a quite reliable method of visualization of quantitative features of forests. It is advisable to continue popularization of choropleth maps. The point is that new better versions of software need to be produced and popular textbooks have to be complemented with more practical examples. Textbooks for foresters should contain specific features of forest cartography, because some of these features are important from the point of view of cartographic methods of presentation.

11

Kartogram i kartodiagram jako przykład łączenia metod prezentacji kartograficznej

Dębowska A., Korycka-Skorupa J.

Polski Przegląd Kartograficzny

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2010

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T. 42, nr 4

305-320

PL

W artykule omówiono różne aspekty łączenia dwóch metod prezentacji - kartogramu i kartodiagramu na jednej mapie. Zwrócono uwagę na dopasowanie graficzne obu metod oraz na charakter i odniesienie przedstawianych w ten sposób danych. Pokazano przykłady takich połączeń, od najprostszych zastosowań po skomplikowane ujęcia anamorficzne.

EN

Presentation of data on maps requires appropriate graphic methods to make the presented information logical and clear for map users. Depending on the range of information cartographers decide to use one, two or several presentation methods on a single map. A common combination is of a choropleth map with a diagram map. A choropleth map consists of area units (geometrical or administrative) designated with a color scale, a method for map background, while a diagram map consists of scaled diagrams appearing 'on top'. Because of this the two methods match and do not interfere graphically. Thus more data can be presented on a single map. It is important that data is logically selected and thematically linked, to create a new quality -communicate new information. Let us look at a combination of a choropleth map and a diagram map in relation to data selection. Considering possible combinations of two types of data (relative and absolute) with two methods of presentation, four types of combinations can be distinguished. (fig- 2). Type A is the most common and most correct according to cartographic methodology. Type B is also quite common. Type C seems incorrect because of a choropleth presentation of absolute data, which is contrary to theoretical recommendations of cartographic methodology. The last type is against the rules of cartographic methodology and is not used. When analyzing a combination of a choropleth map and a diagram map on a single map it is worth having a look not only at the character of data but also at what it relates to. In the case of a choropleth map data al-ways relates to area units. In diagrams data can relate to points, lines as well as area. Therefore the following types of graphic solutions can be determined (fig. 10). Type I is definitely the most common combination. Both methods relate to the same area units, which significantly facilitates map reading and interpretation. Many maps of Type II can be found in atlases, especially in maps thematically linked to population and industry, where data is related to points (diagrams) and area (choropleth). In such cases choropleth map is used to present various markers in relation to whole area unit: voivodship, countries, eta, while a diagram map presents e.g. cities or industrial centers. Type III is used when there is a need to show movement against the background of a choropleth map. Often the presented topic is so broad that it requires several graphic techniques simultaneously. They can be various types of diagrams (various shapes and colors), a complex choropleth map (two choropleth maps superimposed), various signatures and other methods of presentation (isolines, dots, ranges). Browsing through maps one can easily find ones with simultaneous use of several choropleth maps and diagram maps. There also exist some more complex combinations, which result in a single 'new' method of presentation, such as choropleth maps basing on a diagram or cartograms. Map authors combine the choropleth method with a diagram method to present a certain group of topics. This combination is often used to present socio-economic issues, because they require quantitative or ordering methods, of which a choropleth map and a diagram map are the most popular. While selecting data for cartographic presentation it should be remembered that using two or more sets of data on a single map has to be justified. Data shown on a single map has to be complimentary, self-explanatory and selected correctly from the point of cartographic methodology and graphic design. Any attempt to make an exhaustive and clear presentation of a particular problem on a map requires some graphic techniques involving a combination of cartographic methods. Clarity of such presentation depends on data selection, graphic design and perception of map user. Presented analysis does not conclude the topic of research, rather it opens the door towards a broader view of the potential of combining various cartographic methods.

12

Sposoby ujęcia danych a poprawność map opracowanych metodą kartogramu

Tomaszewska M.

Polski Przegląd Kartograficzny

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2009

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T. 41, nr 3

209-220

PL

W artykule krytycznie podsumowano dorobek kartografii w zakresie stosowanych podziałów sposobów ujęcia danych, przedstawiono propozycję typologii danych uwzględniającą najczęściej stosowane przez kartografów kryteria i na jej tle oceniono poglądy kartografów na poprawność kartogramów w zależności od sposobu ujęcia danych wykorzystanych do ich opracowania.

EN

Choropleth is currently one of the most commonly used methods of cartographic presentation. However, the rules of application of this method have not been clearly established yet. One of the controversial issues is the character of data. Using the criterion of presentation data can be divided into 'raw' data, not related to any other data (i.e. absolute) and data in the form of a fraction, related to other data (i.e. relative). The method of presentation also determines further divisions of relative data used in cartographic literature. Division into the two categories (absolute and relative data) is widely accepted by cartographers, but the way they interpret relative data varies. It is visible in various terminology used for relative data by particular authors and various elements that it refers to (B.D. Dent 1996; K. Kocimowski, J. Kwiatek 1976; M. Kraak, F.-J. Ormeling 1998; J. Pastawski (ed.) 2006; L. Ratajski 1973, 1989; A.H. Robinson 1953; A.H. Robinson 1995; K.A. Saliszczew 1976; Slocum et al. 2009; W. Witt 1967, E. Wonka 1979, J.K. Wright 1995).The criteria used for classification of the character of data are not sufficient for establishing a specific definitive and exclusive logical division of the character of data (W. Marciszewski 1988). The author suggests a typological approach. When determining types the author proposes to keep the division into absolute and relative data (obtained by referring one set of data to another). On the other hand one has to recognize the aspect of data processing by mathematical-statistical operations and classify them as processed and unprocessed. Using the two criteria presented above the author proposes to determine four main data types: absolute unprocessed (e.g. the number of births), absolute processed (e.g. average number of births in the years 2000-2005), relative unprocessed (e.g. relation of births to deaths), relative processed (variation of the relation of births to deaths). The above considerations concerning the typological approach to the character of data can be presented as a scheme (fig. 1). Since some data types can not be classified as either purely relative or absolute, the sets overlap (gray area). This approach creates two intermediate types: data which can be considered either absolute processed or relative unprocessed (e.g. the number of cars per family in Warsaw treated as the total number of cars related to the number of families, or as an average number of cars per family) and data which can be classified either as absolute processed or relative processed (e.g. increase of the average number of cars per family in Warsaw in the last decade). Therefore six categories can be established. Cartographers agree, that the most proper method of map elaboration using the choropleth method is the one which uses relative data applied to the entire area of enumeration units, shown on a map of e.g. population density (B.D. Dent 1996; G.F. Jenks 1976; G.F. Jenks, F.C. Caspall 1971; F.J. Monkhouse 1970; F.J. Monkhouse, H.R. Wilkinson 1971; J.-C. Muller 1983,1985; M.-J. Kraak, F. Ormeling 1998; J. Pasławski 1991, 2003; J. Pravda 1983, 2004, T.A. Slocum et al. 2009). This group of the character of data - presented on the scheme as a dense dot pattern (fig. 2) - constitutes only a part of two basie types representing relative data. Method of elaboration of a choropleth basing on such data and its correct interpretation (linked to the size of basie fields) is presented in fig. 3. For choropleth map design cartographers also accept the use of other relative data: amounts related to a part of the area of enumeration units (e.g. share of wheat sown area in the total sown area), amounts related to the total population of a unit (e.g. share of population aged 1595 in total population), amounts related to a part of the population of a unit (e.g. percentage of working individuals) and amounts referred to other elements (e.g. number of inhabitants per pharmacy), (among others: D.J. Cuff, K.R. Bieri 1979; G.F. Jenks 1976; M.-J. Kraak, F. Ormeling 1998; L. Ratajski 1989; A.H. Robinson et al. 1988, 1995; K.A. Saliszczew 2001). The group of data which the article describes as relative (related to elements other than the total area of the enumeration unit) refers to two, previously discussed basie types (blue color) and two intermediate types (gray color). Its range is shown in sparse dot pattern (fig. 2). The reader interpreting the choropleth prepared basing on the data referring to elements other than the total area of the enumeration unit should be aware that the values of the presented indicator can be unconnected to the area of those units, and that the indicator's value is also affected by the data in its denominator, though such information is often not provided (fig. 4). Most cartographers are convinced that absolute data should be presented in the form of proportional symbols. Specialist who deny the possibility of applying absolute data for preparation of choropleth maps point out interpretative difficulties resulting from different size of reference units (D.J. Cuff, K. R. Bieri 1979; B.D. Dent 1996; G.F. Jenks 1976; A.H. Robinson, R. Sale, J. Mor-rison 1988; T.A. Slocum et al. 2009). When reading a choropleth map prepared using absolute data one should overlook the size of enumeration units (fig. 5), as in the case of choropleth presentations basing on relative data (referring to other elements than the enumeration unit). It should be pointed out that in the case of such presentation the values are not affected by any other data, which makes interpretation easier. It should be reminded that some data classified as relative data can be at the same time classified as absolute data. Therefore it is difficult to accept a notion that absolute data can not be used for choropleth maps. Considering the arguments presented by cartographers and the rangę of ambiguity concerning the classification of the character of data, one should recommend the use of relative data (referring to the whole enumeration unit) for preparation of choropleth maps. However, bearing in mind how common choropleth maps are, such recommendation is unlikely to change cartographic practice. What is more, application of other than relative data (refering to the whole area) for choropleth maps may have certain advantages e.g. basing on a choropleth it is easy, on the general level of map reading, to separate regions characterized by a certain value. Further theoretical considerations concerning the correetness of choropleth maps should also account for the results of empirical research on the preferences and skills of such maps' users.

13

Kartogramy w Atlasie Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej

Pasławski J.

Polski Przegląd Kartograficzny

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2007

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T. 39, nr 1

19-34

PL

Artykuł zawiera analizę map wykonanych metodą kartogramu zamieszczonych w narodowym atlasie zatytułowanym Atlas Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, wydawanym przez Głównego Geodetę Kraju w latach 1993-1997. W atlasie znajduje się 912 map, z czego 49% stanowią kartogramy. Mapy te omówiono krytycznie w czterech paragrafach: dane statystyczne, pole odniesienia, wyznaczanie klas oraz forma graficzna legendy. Zgodnie z ogólnie przyjętymi zasadami znakomita większość kartogramów prezentuje wartości względne odniesione do powierzchni i ludności. Kilka map zawiera dane bezwzględne, ale ich prezentacja zgodna jest z logiką mapy. W czasie opracowywania atlasu na podział administracyjny kraju składało się 49 województw i 2365 gmin. Spośród map wykonanych metodą kartogramu 56% odnosi się do województw, a 30%, czyli 140 do gmin, co jest prezentacją dość szczegółową. Pozostałe mapy opierają się na różnych podziałach przestrzennych, m.in. historycznych i organizacji wyznaniowych. Tylko na jednej mapie wykorzystano pola geometryczne. W atlasie przeważają kartogramy sześcioklasowe, a granicami klas są wartości "okrągłe". Bliższa analiza wykazała, że stosując zmienną rozpiętość klas, dążono do podobnej liczebności jednostek przestrzennych w klasie. Istotnym elementem każdej mapy jest legenda, ale kartografowie nie są zgodni, jak należy opracować legendę kartogramu. Autor artykułu we wcześniejszych swoich publikacjach zalecał legendę, która w atlasie stosowana jest rzadko. Najczęściej jest to legenda usytuowana poziomo, rzadziej pionowo, zawierająca tylko jedną wartość granic klas. Skale barwne opracowano poprawnie, unikając dość często popełnianego błędu polegającego na stosowaniu sekwencji barw właściwych skalom hipsometrycznym. Atlas Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej należy ocenić wysoko z punktu widzenia zastosowanych kartograficznych metod prezentacji. Wprawdzie nie zawiera on rozwiązań nowatorskich, a raczej tradycyjne, ale jest opracowany rzetelnie, co pozwala na poprawny odbiór map nie tylko przez specjalistów.

EN

The article contains an analysis of choropleth maps included in Atlas of the Republic of Poland, published by the Surveyor General of Poland in the years 1993-1997. The atlas contains 912 maps, 49% of which are choropleth maps. They are critically described in four paragraphs: statistical data, space unit, class selection and legend design. In accordance with commonly accepted rules the majority of choropleth maps presents relative value in relation to area and population. Several maps present absolute value, but their presentation is logically justified (e.g. fig.1) At the time of atlas preparation the country's administrative division was into 49 voivodships and 2365 communes. 56% of all choropleth maps in the atlas concerns voivodships and 30% (or 140 maps) concerns communes, which accounts for a rather detailed presentation. Remaining maps employ other spatial divisions, e.g. historical or religious. Only one map uses geometrical units. Most of the choropleth maps in the atlas are of a six--class type (fig. 6), with class limits set at round numbers. A closer analysis showed that with varying class range there was a tendency to equalize the frequency of spatial units in every class. Legend is an important element of each map. Nevertheless cartographers are not unanimous as to how a choropleth legend should be prepared. The author in his previous papers recommended a legend which is rarely used in atlases (fig. 11). Most often it is horizontal, sometimes vertical, including only one value of class limit (fig.12). Color scale was prepared properly, avoiding a common mistake of using color sequence characteristic for hipsometric tint scale. Atlas of the Republic of Poland should be highly evaluated from the point of view of applied cartographic methods of presentations. It is not innovative, but skillfully and properly made, which makes it accessible to a wide variety of readers, not only specialists.

14

Modelowanie powierzchni statystycznej przedstawiającej gęstość zaludnienia w Polsce przy pomocy metody dozymetrycznej

Bielecka E., Kuczyk A., Witkowska E.

Roczniki Geomatyki

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2005

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T. 3, z. 2

10-16

EN

Population mapping, in general, has two purposes: firstly, to cartographically portray the extent and density of population across an area of interest, and secondly, to derive a quantitative estimation of population density for use in subsequent spatial analytical modeling tasks. A cartographic portrayal of population traditionally has the form of a choropleth map. This kind of mapping is very simple, but despite its simplicity, choropleths maps have limited utility for detailed spatial analysis of population data, especially where human populations are concentrated in relatively small numbers of villages, towns and cities. One way to avoid this limitation is to transform the administrative units into smaller and more relevant map units through the process known as dasymetric mapping. The dasymetric technique maps a quantitative variable according to boundaries derived from the character of the data distribution. It is a form of an areal interpolation that uses ancillary data to transform population data from one set of spatial units to another. This paper demonstrates the use of satellite derived ancillary land cover data to map population densities using dasymetric mapping. The three dasymetric methods presented, revealed the interregional variation in population density more realistically, in particular, among urban and rural areas. The methods were tested for Mazovia Region. The binary method, the simplest, is easy to implement in GIS and gives a better view of population distribution over a given area than conventional choropleth maps (fig. 1). The only drawback is the delimitation of uninhabited areas. The areal weighting aggregation method uses land cover data as limiting variable and a typology of communes as a correlation variable. We a priori assign the percentage of people attributed to each land cover type and groups of communes. Subjectivity of these decisions is considered the drawback of the method. The results are detailed enough and portray population density very realistic (fig.2). The areal weighting correlation method presents a new way of calculating weighting coefficients. This is based on the method proposed by Gallego and Peedell (2001), but is adapted to Polish conditions by grouping land cover classes, stratifying communes and computing coefficients (tab.1). This dasymetric mapping method is based on the assumption that the ratio between the population density of two land cover categories is the same for any given commune. This method, on contrary to previous ones, does not preserve pycnophylactic property of statistical data, so it is necessary to evaluate the results. Relative errors were computed for evaluating the modified areal weighting method. The analyse of a comparison between attributed population and population data known from statistical measurements indicate that the population value attributed to most of the communes is approximately in agrement with the statistical data (fig.4). The coefficients seem to be too high for a few urban communes and too low for some rural areas. The areal weighting correlation method provides realistic view of population distribution in the Mazovia Region (fig 3). The dasymetric population map was visualized according to choropleth map rules in such a way that it focuses on the relationship between settlement and the natural environment. The information generated from a dasymetric population density map could provide useful assistance to district administrations, especially those responsible for regional or city development and land management.

15

Kartodiagram i kartogram a charakter danych - badania eksperymentalne

Korycka-Skorupa J.

Polski Przegląd Kartograficzny

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2004

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T. 36, nr 1

12-25

PL

Poprawne stosowanie kartograficznych metod prezentacji warunkuje czytelność redagowanej mapy. Wiąże się z tym m. in. wybór odpowiednich danych statystycznych. Często sprawia on autorom map wiele trudności, dlatego stał się powodem niniejszych rozważań. W artykule przedstawiono próbę klasyfikacji danych za względu na ich charakter. Zaprezentowano poglądy kartografów związane ze stosowaniem danych do dwóch metod prezentacji: kartogramu i kartodiagramu. W dalszej części artukułu przedstawiono analizę danych na mapach w atlasach geograficznych oraz badania ankietowe, których celem było skonfrontowanie przedstawionych poglądów z praktyką kartograficzną.

EN

Proper application of cartographic methods of presentation is a condition for map's readability. It is related to a choice of appropriate statistical data. The article presents an attempt to classify data by type (fig. 1). Absolute data is represented by absolute numbers. They can be divided into two groups: proper - simple data represented by absolute numbers and transformed, which despite undergoing a transformation (e.g. averaged in time or related to the whole set) are still absolute numbers. Relative data is represented in fraction form, in relation to a particular component. Relative data can be proper, shown as a fraction, and transformed. Data type is of significance when differentiating between two types of cartographic presentation: choropleth map and diagran map. In cartographic literature a lot has been written about the selection of data for choropleth map presentation. The choropleth map method is usually recommended for presentation of ralative data. Data selection for diagram map presentation is much more disputable. Most handbooks recommend absolute data. Unfortunately this recommendation is not supported with any evidence. Some authors allow also relative data, but they do not provide any evidence either. Therefore there is no specific advice as to which type of data should be chosen for diagram map presentation. This research tried to establish the practical solution to the problem of data selection. One of the methods is an analysis of maps published in geographic atlases. 3656 diagram maps from atlases have been analyzed in order to determine the type of data used for them. The results showed absolute data to be the majority (86,4% of analyzed diagram maps). Diagram map presentation of relative data was applied significantly less often (4% of the total number of diagram maps). Another method of establishing a connection between theory and cartographic practice is a survey. Survey questionnaires were distributed twice to geography students at Warsaw University and Higher School of Pedagogics in Kielce. The first survey was to establish the methods of data selection by individuals who had not been acquainted with the rules of cartography. The second survey, conducted after a oneyear cartography course, was to determine the application of theory in practice. There were two types of tasks. The first one was to invent map titles (an open task). In the second part students were given several titles and asked to decide, which of them could be presented on a particular map (a closed task). Maps in the questionnaire had to be perceived similarly by all participants and should not be associated with any real terrain. Therefore fictional maps had been prepared. The first survey included 178 students (100 from Warsaw, 78 from Kielce). It showed that data selection for diagram maps and choropleth maps is not intuitive. The participants asked to suggest map topics handled diagram maps rather well; the results for choropleth maps were worse. Detailed analysis of chosen topics showed that the students had difficulties with both methods. The participants could not differentiate between the two types of maps and often assigned to them the same topics and therefore the same data. The second survey included 158 participants ( 84 from warsaw, 74 from Kielce). In both groups there was an increase of the number of correct answers (fig.11). However the results in both centers were significantly different. In Warsaw there were more correct answers, while in KIelce only a decrease in the number of incorrect answers was evident. The conducted survey showed that data selection for the methods of cartographic presentation is not an easy task. Theoretical instructions quoted in handbooks are not intuitively followed by map users. Choropleth map presentation is usually connected with the application of relative data. Diagram maps usually show absolute data. This rule is respected in practice, alt-hough there are common exceptions. Some of the students, before as well as after the course, had different opinions-in the first survey unconsciously, basing in intuition or coincidence, in the second survey often consciously, claiming that particular data simply fit the map in question. Despite cartographic education not all the students acquired the rules. Different results in Warsaw and Kielce may suggest that cartography lecturers put different stress on this issue. However in both centers there is a visible improvement after the course has been completed. It can be assumed, that the results are more evident where the theory has been stressed more. In both schools, after the course had been completed, there was only a small number of incorrect or illogical answers. This shows that the students acquired presented knowledge. However in cartography some rules are more and some less logical. Presenting forests in green and waters in blue is beyond question. It is logical and obvious. Data selection for the methods of presentation is not as logical, therefore it is not as widely accepted.

16

Prezentacja zależności zjawisk metodą kartogramu złożonego

Leonowicz A.

Polski Przegląd Kartograficzny

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2002

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T. 34, nr 4

273-285

PL

Artukuł poświęcony jest ocenie możliwości zastosowania metody kartogramu złożonego do przedstawiania zależności zjawisk. Omówione zostały zagadnienia metodyczne związane z opracowywaniem kartogramów złożonych. Zwrócono uwagę na problem czytelności tych map.

EN

Presentation of information about geographic environment in a form of the maps of single phenomena does not always allow for a correct interpretation of relations between them. Simultaneous reading and comparing of several maps is often too difficult for perception of an average reader. Therefore one should look for more synthetic presentation methods, which instead of elementary information - about phenomena distribution, would present transformed information - e.g. about their relations. A two-variable choropleth map can be such a method. Its main feature is, that it presents values of two geographic phenomena within an areal units on map. The article discusses main methodic aspects of two-variable choropleth map elaboration. These are: choise of phenomena to be presented, preparation of a statistical scattergram, which is the basis for class intervals selection, and classification method. The author also presents principles, which should govern the process of planning a graphical solution suitable for the presentation of two variables. A color legend of a two-variable choropleth map used by the U.S. Bureau of the Census in the seventies is an example of such a solution. Poor readability of maps prepared with it suggests that further modifications of this legend are needed. Functioning of two-variable choropleth maps are the main source of limitations of this method. It is impossible to present phenomena distribution and relations at the same time. Thus a two-variable choropleth map should be seen as a compromise. Poor legibility of maps prepared with this method is a source of serious doubts. It has been proved through experimental research (H. Weiner, C.M. Francolini 1980, J. Olson 1981). The reading process can be improved through limiting the number of classes, application of proper graphic solutions and developing a clear legend. Reader's experience with such maps also plays an inoportant role. There necessary, the presentation method should be explained.

17

Kartogram w wybranych programach komputerowych

Dmochowski M., Pasławski J.

Polski Przegląd Kartograficzny

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2000

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T. 32, nr 4

288-301

PL

Artykuł jest analizą siedmiu programów komputerowych zaliczanych do grupy systemów informacji geograficznej (GIS) z punktu widzenia możliwości poprawnego opracowania kartogramu. W artykule wskazano na liczne uchybienia w konstrukcji programów, a wynik analizy zestawiono w tablicy kończącej opracowanie.

EN

The paper contain a critical analysis of possibilities of preparing a choropleth map in selected GIS software packages. Table 1 contains a characteristics of seven selected programs. The analysis pertained to the following stages of choropleth map preparation: 1. Evaluation of statistical data 2. Problems of unit areas 3. Class selection 4. Graphic output 5. Map evaluation The software packages described in this paper cannot be considered as fully professional cartographic devices. The possibilities of generating choropleth map included there violate most important rules pertaining to such maps. It should also be noticed, that these programs are intended to be used by non-cartographers, which will result i improperly prepared maps. The Table list 12 functions included in such programs (such as: number of classes, shape of a map legend and the possibility of legend editing, color schemes, as well as the possibility of creating classless, two-variable and 3D choropleth maps). The final score being the sum of values of each program, given in the last row, also includes a number of features not listed in the Table, but contained in a broader paper (Dmochowski 2000). The following programs achieved the highest results: Atlas GIS 3.0 prepared as early as in 1994 and designed for MS Windows (21,5 points) as well as Maplnfo and ArcView (20 points each). What is especially alarming is the lack of sufficient explanations intended for non-cartographers. The results is that these packages increase the spread of poorly eleborated or even wortless maps.