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Reconstruction of the Late Bronze Age Foundry Process in Greater Poland: Analyzes and Simulations. Case Study of Hoard from Przybysław

Garbacz-Klempka Aldona, Piękoś Marcin, Perek-Nowak Małgorzata, Kozana Janusz, Żak Paweł, Fijołek Andrzej, Silska Patrycja, Stróżyk Mateusz

Archives of Metallurgy and Materials

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2022

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Vol. 67, iss. 3

1125--1136

EN

One of the most interesting categories of artifacts for archaeometallurgical research includes deposits of bronze items, so-called “metallurgists hoards”. They contain, aside of final products, many fragments of raw material and, moreover, metallurgical tools. An important source for the studies on the history of metallurgical technology is hoard from Przybysław, Greater Poland district. Thus, the aim of the work is the identification and interpretation of bronze-working practices and strategies adopted by prehistoric communities of the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age (ca. 600 BC). The examined objects are characterized in terms of their design, structure, and chemical composition. The methods chosen for the studies of artifacts include: metallographic macro- and microscopic observations using optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), the analysis of chemical composition with the methods of energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray fluorescence (ED-XRF). The thermodynamic analysis of the alloys was performed on the basis of the CALPHAD method. The experimental melts allowed to verify the theoretical considerations and to determine the characteristic temperatures of changes. The old casting technology can be analyzed basing on computer modeling and computer simulation methods. Simulations in the MAGMASOFT® software are a good example to illustrate how to fill a mould cavity with a molten bronze for a hoop ornament. It is also an appropriate tool to determine temperature distribution in a mould. The simulations also show the possible disadvantages with this old technology.

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DSC Application for Microstructure Investigations of Medieval Cu Alloys

Konieczny J., Labisz K., Głowik-Łazarczyk K., Surma S., Wierzbicki Ł., Jurczyk S.

Archives of Foundry Engineering

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2018

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Vol. 18, iss. 2

21--26

EN

Archaeometallurgical investigations presented in this work focus on analysing the microstructure as well as mechanical properties of artefacts from the17th in form of findings performed from cast iron as well as copper casts. The presented research results extend the up-to-date knowledge and present the analysis of structural compounds found in the microstructure of the artefacts from the time dating back to the late Middle Ages in the region around Czestochowa, Poland. The tested samples were found in earth in the city centre under the present marketplace. The excavation works were carried out in summer in the year 2009, and have resulted in the excavation of artefacts in form of copper block of the weight of several kg. The excavation action was led by a group of Polish archaeologists collaborating with the local authorities. The performed pre-dating of this element determines the age of the artefacts as the 17th century AD. The excavations that have been taking place since 2007 have widened the knowledge of the former Czestochowa. Historians of this town have suggested, that the found weight and traces of metallurgical activity suggest that the exposed walls were an urban weight. The weight is visible on the 18th century iconography. What was find on the Old Market indicates that there was a lush economic life before the Swedish invasion in this part of Poland. Some buildings lost their functions or were changed, others died in fires, but new places developed. To describe the microstructure, with its structural components, research was done using microscopy techniques, both of the light as well as electron microscopy (SEM), also chemical composition analysis was carried out using the EDS technique, as well as tool for phase analysis were applied in form of X-Ray Diffraction (qualitative analysis), especially for the reason to describe the phases present in the excavated material. This research will help to obtain new information in order to investigate further archaeometallurgical artefacts, extending the knowledge about middle age metallic materials its usage and manufacturing.

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The Analysis of Foundry Engineering of Copper Alloys Based on the Research of a Metallurgist Settlement in Szczepidło

Garbacz-Klempka A., Makarowicz P., Tokarski T.

Archives of Foundry Engineering

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2017

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Vol. 17, iss. 1

45--50

EN

The article presents chosen aspects of foundry engineering of the settlement dwellers, including the archaeometric characteristics and metal science analysis of the artefacts, as well as an attempted reconstruction of the production organization. Discovered in Szczepidło (Greater Poland), the foundry workshop is unique in Central European Bronze Age. This workshop foundry operated roughly XIV-XII Century BC. Its production is evidenced by the presence of markers of the whole production cycle: semi-finished and finished products, production waste, fragments of crucibles and casting ladles with traces of usage, and tools. On this basis the alloys and foundry technologies used have been described. The analysis of foundry technology of copper alloys in the settlement area was carried out by observing the surface and structure of the products, semi-finished artefacts and fragments of crucibles by applying optical microscopy (OM), confocal microscopy (CLSM) and X-ray radiography (RT). The investigations of compositions were made by means of the energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (ED-XRF) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with an energy dispersive X-ray analysis system (EDS).

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Reconstruction of the Casting Technology in the Bronze Age on the Basis of Investigations and Visualisation of Casting Moulds

Garbacz-Klempka A., Kwak Z., Żak P. L., Szucki M., Ścibior D., Stolarczyk T., Nowak K.

Archives of Foundry Engineering

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2017

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Vol. 17, iss. 3

184--190

EN

During excavation of the cremation cemetery of urnfield culture in Legnica at Spokojna Street (Lower Silesia, Poland), dated to 1100-700 BC, the largest - so far in Poland – a collection of casting moulds from the Bronze Age was discovered: three moulds for axes casting made out of stone and five moulds for casting sickles, razors, spearhead and chisels, made out of clay. This archaeological find constituted fittings of foundrymen’s graves. In order to perform the complete analysis of moulds in respect of their application in the Bronze Age casting technology analytical methods, as well as, computer aided methods of technological processes were used. Macroscopic investigations were performed and the X-ray fluorescence spectrometry method was used to analyse the chemical composition and metal elements content in mould cavities. Moulds were subjected to three-dimensional scanning and due to the reverse engineering the geometry of castings produced in these moulds were obtained. The gathered data was used to perform design and research works by means of the MAGMA5 software. Various variants of the pouring process and alloys solidification in these archaeological moulds were simulated. The obtained results were utilised in the interpretation of the Bronze Age casting production in stone and clay moulds, with regard to their quality and possibility of casting defects occurrence being the result of these moulds construction. The reverse engineering, modelling and computer simulation allowed the analysis of moulds and castings. Investigations of casting moulds together with their digitalisation and reconstruction of casting technology, confirm the high advancement degree of production processes in the Bronze Age.

5

Microstructure of Archaeological 17th Century Cast Copper Alloys

Konieczny J., Labisz K., Głowik-Łazarczyk K., Ćwiek J., Wierzbicki Ł.

Archives of Foundry Engineering

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2017

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Vol. 17, iss. 2

190--196

EN

In Poland, researchers have a very strong interest in archaeometallurgy, which, as presented in classical works, focuses on dating artefacts from the prehistoric and early medieval periods in the form of cast iron and copper castings. This study, extending the current knowledge, presents the results of a microstructure investigation into the findings from the Modern era dating back to the late Middle Ages. The investigated material was an object in the form of a heavy solid copper block weighing several kilograms that was excavated by a team of Polish archaeologists working under the direction of Ms Iwona Młodkowska-Przepiórowska during works on the marketplace in the city of Czestochowa during the summer of 2009. Pre-dating of the material indicates the period of the seventeenth century AD. The solid copper block was delivered in the form of a part shaped like a bell, named later in this work as a “kettlebell”. To determine the microstructure, the structural components, chemical composition, and homogeneity, as well as additives and impurities, investigations were carried out using light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy including analysis of the chemical composition performed in micro-areas, and qualitative X-ray phase analysis in order to investigate the phase composition. Interpretation of the analytical results of the material’s microstructure will also help modify and/or develop new methodological assumptions to investigate further archaeometallurgical exhibits, throwing new light on and expanding the area of knowledge of the use and processing of seventeenth-century metallic materials.

6

Metallurgical Slags as Traces of a 15th century Copper Smelter

Garbacz-Klempka A., Wardas-Lasoń M., Kozana J., Piękoś M., Kwak Z.

Archives of Foundry Engineering

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2017

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Vol. 17, iss. 2

25--30

EN

The research focuses on assessing the metal content, mainly copper, lead, iron and also silver in metallurgical slag samples from the area where historical metallurgical industry functioned. In the smelter located in Mogiła, near Krakow (southern Poland), whose operation is confirmed in sources from 1469, copper was probably refined as well as silver was separated from copper. Based on the change of chemical and soil phase content and also taking cartographic and historical data into account, considering the restrictions resulting from the modern land use the area was determined whose geochemical mapping can point to the location of the 15th century Jan Thurzo’s smelter in Mogiła near Krakow. Moreover, using the same approach with the samples of this kind here as with hazardous waste, an attempt has been made to assess their impact on the environment. Thereby, taking the geoenvironmental conditions into account, potential impact of the industrial activity has been assessed, which probably left large scale changes in the substratum, manifested in the structure, chemical content and soil phase changes. Discovering areas which are contaminated above the standard value can help to identify historical human activities, and finding the context in artefacts allows to treat geochemical anomalies as a geochronological marker. For this purpose the best are bed sediments, at present buried in the ground, of historical ditches draining the area of the supposed smelter. Correlating their qualities with analogical research of archeologically identified slags and other waste material allows for reconstructing the anthropopressure stages and the evaluation of their effects. The operation of Jan Thurzo’s smelter is significant for the history of mining and metallurgy of Poland and Central and Eastern Europe.

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Bronze Jewellery from the Early Iron Age urn-field in Mała Kępa. An approach to casting technology

Garbacz-Klempka A., Kowalski Ł., Gackowski J., Perek-Nowak M.

Archives of Foundry Engineering

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2017

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Vol. 17, iss. 3

175--183

EN

This study characterizes the bronze jewellery recovered from the Lusatian culture urn-field in Mała Kępa (Chełmno land, Poland). Among many common ornaments (e.g. necklaces, rings, pins) the ones giving evidence of a steppe-styled inspiration (nail earrings) were also identified. With the dendritic microstructures revealed, the nail earrings prove the implementing of a lost-wax casting method, whereas some of the castings were further subjected to metalworking. The elemental composition indicates the application of two main types of bronze alloys: Cu-Sn and Cu-Sn-Pb. It has been established that the Lusatian metalworkers were familiar with re-melting the scrap bronze and made themselves capable of roasting the sulphide-rich ores. The collection from Mała Kępa has been described in terms of its structure and composition. The investigations were made by means of the energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (ED-XRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with an energy dispersive X - ray analysis system (EDS) and optical microscopy (OM). In order to fingerprint an alloy profile of the castings with a special emphasis on the nail earrings, the data-set (ED-XRF, EDS) was statistically evaluated using multidimensional analyses (FA, DA).

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Kamienie żarnowe do rozcierania rud ze stanowiska nr 8 w Dąbrowie Górniczej - Łośniu

Garbacz-Klempka A., Karwowski Ł., Rozmus D.

Hereditas Minariorum

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2016

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Vol. 3

177--191

PL

Przedstawiony komunikat jest pierwszym opracowaniem kamieni żarnowych znalezionych we wczesnośredniowiecznej (druga polowa XI w oraz druga połowa XII w.) osadzie hutniczej w Dąbrowie Górniczej – Łośniu, związanej z wydobyciem i wytopem ołowiu i srebra. Wybór kamieni żarnowych został poddany badaniom petrograficznym, a dwa zabytki kamienne zbadano metodą spektroskopii fluorescencji rentgenowskiej (XRF) pod kątem obecności na powierzchni kamieni pierwiastków metalicznych. Jak stwierdzono ślady pierwiastków metalicznych obecne są w grudkach materiału obcego w stosunku do struktury kamienia, „wprasowanych” w istniejące w kamieniach żarnowych pory. Podsumowując można stwierdzić, że pochodzące z warstw wczesnośredniowiecznych (druga połowa XI do drugiej połowy XII w.) kamienie żarnowe oznaczone jako zabytek 166/III/w. 31 oraz zabytek 139/IX w. 92 służyły do mielenia rudy. Świadczy o tym zestaw pierwiastków charakterystycznych dla rudy cynku i ołowiu z domieszką srebra odkrytych w porach kamienia żarnowego. Gdyby to była glejta (PbO) nie stwierdzono by śladów cynku i srebra. Kamienie żarnowe odkryte w warstwach średniowiecznych związanych z pochodzącym z przełomu XIII / XIV w. dworem, mogły natomiast służyć do mielenia zboża na mąkę.

EN

The following notice constitutes the first treatment of quern-stones found in the early medieval (second half of the 11th c. and the second half of the 12th c.) metallurgical settlement in Dąbrowa Górnicza-Łosień, associated with the extraction and smelting of lead and silver. A selection of the quern-stones was subjected to petrographical research, and two stone monuments were examined by means of X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) in order to seek the presence of metallic elements on the surface of the stone. It was established that traces of metallic elements occur in the lumps of material which is alien in reference to the structure of the stone. These traces are “ingrained” in the pores of the quern-stones. In conclusion, one may state that the quern-stones derived from early medieval strata (second half of the 11th c. until the second half of the 12th c.) marked as monument 166/III/w. 31 and monument 139/IX w. 92 were used to grind ores. Testimony to this is furnished by the set of elements peculiar to zinc and lead ore with admixtures of silver that were found in the pores of a quern-stone. If this were massicot (PbO), no traces of zinc or silver would have been found. The quern-stones discovered in the early-medieval strata associated with the court dating back to the turn of the 14th century may have been used to grind wheat into flour.

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Archaeometallurgical Investigations of the Early Iron Age Casting Workshop at Kamieniec. A Preliminary Study

Garbacz-Klempka A., Kowalski Ł., Kozana J., Gackowski J., Perek-Nowak M., Szczepańska G., Piękoś M.

Archives of Foundry Engineering

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2016

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Vol. 16, iss. 3

29--34

EN

(Chełmno land, Poland) as it is reflected through casting workshop recovered during recent excavations. Among ready products, the ones giving evidence of local metallurgy (e.g. casting moulds and main runners) were also identified. With the shrinkage cavities and dendritic microstructures revealed, the artifacts prove the implementing a casting method by the Lusatian culture metalworkers. The elemental composition indicates application of two main types of bronzes: Cu-Sn and Cu-Pb. Aside these main alloying additions, some natural impurities such as silver, arsenic, antimony and nickel were found which may be attributed to the origin of the ore and casting technology. The collection from Kamieniec was described in terms of its structure and composition. The investigations were made by means of the energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (ED-XRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with an energy dispersive X-ray analysis system (EDS) and optical microscopy (OM). In order to fingerprint either local or non-local profile of the alloys, the ED-XRF data-set was statistically evaluated using a factor analysis (FA).

10

Computer modeling for the visualization and geometric reconstruction of artefacts from the casting workshop in Grzybiany

Garbacz-Klempka A., Rzadkosz S., Stolarczyk T., Kozana J., Piekoś M., Kwak Z., Tenerowicz M.

Metallurgy and Foundry Engineering

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2015

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Vol. 41, no. 1

45--56

EN

The casting workshop in Grzybiany is one of the most important archaeological sites in regards to casting technology from the Bronze and Early Iron Ages. During the "Grzybiany. Osada nadjeziorna z epoki brązu i żelaza" [Grzybiany. Lakeside settlement from the Bronze and Early Iron Ages] research, the structure of casting moulds was analyzed as well as the chemical composition and microstructure of one of the more-interesting metal artefacts found within the workshop. Based on this, geometric visualization was performed with the help of computer-modeling methods. For scientific, experimental, and educational purposes, reconstruction of a zoomorphic pendant was performed using the lost-wax method. Wax models injected into a matrix were used, along with fired ceramic (gypsum) moulds and a specially prepared modeling alloy that corresponds to the original material. In this way, a true replica of the original was obtained: technologically, structurally and chemically. Studies of production technology of the casting workshop dated back to the Bronze and Early Iron Age help to increase the knowledge of the mould-preparing technology and the alloys used. Modern tools and computer programs aid in the research of old technologies and help disseminate the results.

PL

Pracownia odlewnicza w Grzybianach należy do jednego z najważniejszych stanowisk archeologicznych pod względem studiów nad technologią odlewniczą w epoce brązu i wczesnej epoce żelaza. W toku prac wykonano analizę struktury form odlewniczych. Przeprowadzono także analizę składu chemicznego i mikrostruktury jednego z ciekawszych zabytków metalowych, odkrytych na terenie pracowni. Na tej podstawie, z wykorzystaniem metod modelowania komputerowego, wykonano wizualizację geometryczną. W celach naukowych, doświadczalnych i edukacyjnych wykonano rekonstrukcję zawieszki zoomorficznej przy wykorzystaniu metody wytapianych modeli. Zastosowano modele woskowe wtryskiwane do matrycy, formy ceramiczne (gipsowe) wypalane oraz specjalnie przygotowany stop modelowy, odpowiadający oryginalnemu. W ten sposób uzyskano wierną technologicznie, strukturalnie i chemicznie replikę zabytku. Badania technologii produkcji warsztatu odlewniczego z epoki brązu i wczesnej epoki żelaza przyczyniają się do wzrostu świadomości o stosowanych technikach przygotowania form i wykorzystywanych stopach. Współczesne narzędzia i techniki komputerowe wspomagają badania dawnych technologii i służą ich upowszechnianiu.

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The “Metallurgist's Hoard”. Silver and Lead Smelting in the Early Medieval Poland

Garbacz-Klempka A., Rozmus D.

Archives of Foundry Engineering

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2015

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Vol. 15, iss. 1 spec.

17--20

EN

During archaeological research of early medieval settlement in Dąbrowa Górnicza - Łosień, a hoard of silver coins and silver smelts was discovered, over 1000 items in total. There was also found a mining shaft and numerous furnaces in the settlement area, confirming its mining and metallurgical character. The settlement development was based on excavating and smelting rich lead ores, containing significant amount of silver. Silver was separated from lead in successive stages with the help of cupellation. The paper presents the analyses of silver smelts and coins coming from the hoard. Optical and scanning microscopy were applied as well as the methods of chemical content analysis by X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF), Scanning Electron Microscopy and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy in microareas (SEM-EDS), and also phase analysis with the help of X-Ray Diffraction method (XRD). The impurities of the silver clumps testify to the fact that they are semi-products. After refining and modifying the material by adding copper, denars were minted from it. The silver coins belonging the hoard are made from relatively pure material, including a small lead. An insignificant amount of other metallic elements testifies to the good quality of the raw material and efficiency of silver production in the early Middle Ages.

12

Copper and Arsenical Copper During Eneolithic in Metallographic and Mechanical Properties Examination

Garbacz-Klempka A., Kozana J., Piękoś M., Cieślak W., Perek-Nowak M., Kowalski Ł., Adamczak K., Łoś J.

Archives of Foundry Engineering

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2015

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Vol. 15, iss. 4 spec.

23--28

EN

Arsenical copper has been used since 5th millennium cal.BC, later exchanged by application of Cu-Sn alloys in metallurgy. This work presents the results of metallographic and mechanical properties studies performed on two flat axes connected with local Eneolithic societies (4500-3000 cal.BC). The axes are one of the oldest metal artifacts from Polish land. Originally they were made from Cu-As alloy, and their chemical composition was established by X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF). Their microstructure was analysed using optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy conducted with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). The macrostructure analysis (OM) of the axes was performed as well. On the basis of the results, the alloys used in the Eneolithic to cast the axes were reproduced in lab. In order to achieve the characteristics of the alloys, their mechanical properties including ultimate tensile strenght (UTS), hardness (HB), microhardness (HV0,1) and ductility were examined. The solidification process was studied by means of thermal analysis.

13

Ceramic Moulds for Precision Casting in the Bronze Age and Computer Reconstruction of the Casts

Garbacz-Klempka A., Kozana J., Piekoś M., Kwak Z., Długosz P., Stolarczyk T.

Archives of Foundry Engineering

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2015

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Vol. 15, iss. 1 spec.

21--26

EN

The casting workshop in Grzybiany, in Lower Silesia (SW Poland) is a valuable source of knowledge on the development of casting techniques in the 7 – 6 centuries BC. Abundant evidence found on the archaeological site points to cast manufacturing by means of precision casting in ceramic moulds (lost-wax molding). The workshop is the biggest collection of moulds for bracelet, necklace and other smaller decorative artefacts in Poland. The aim of the work is to conduct the research of the moulds and casts with the view of performing a computer reconstruction of the casting moulds from the Bronze and Early Iron Age, based on the Grzybiany finds. As part of the work, both the microscopic structure and defectoscopic analyses of the casting moulds were performed. Chemical composition of the casts was tested using the X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy method. Based on these results and using computer modelling methods, a geometric visualisation was performed, which is the bases for preparing the visualisation of the process of pouring liquid metal into the moulds, reconstructing both the technology and the alloys used.

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Od topni Kazimierza Wielkiego do huty miedzi Jana Turzo. Metalurgia miedzi od początku XVI wieku

Garbacz-Klempka A., Karwan T., Rzadkosz S.

Rudy i Metale Nieżelazne Recykling

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2014

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R. 59, nr 1

22--29

PL

Kraków ma wielowiekowe, poświadczone poprzez źródła i badania naukowe, tradycje metalurgiczne i odlewnicze. Już od XII wieku Rynek krakowski mógł być miejscem produkcji wyrobów z metali nieżelaznych, co poświadczają znaleziska tygielków odlewniczych i relikty pieca ze śladami miedzi. W XIV wieku na Rynku funkcjonowała Wielka Waga dla miedzi, ołowiu i żelaza oraz topnie metali, wymieniane w przywileju królewskim Kazimierza Wielkiego. Od XV wieku rozwijał się w okolicach Krakowa przemysł metalurgiczny. Wielki przedsiębiorca Jan Turzo założył w podkrakowskiej Mogile (dziś Kraków, dzielnica Nowa Huta) hutę, w której zastosował innowacyjną metodę osrebrzania miedzi przy udziale ołowiu. Realizowane w latach 2005-2011 badania archeologiczne na Rynku Głównym w Krakowie, wraz z przeprowadzonymi badaniami metaloznawczymi pozyskanych zabytków, dowodzą roli Krakowa jako europejskiego centrum handlu metalami. Równocześnie odkrycie śladów produkcji średniowiecznej huty w Mogile k. Krakowa, wskazuje na Kraków jako centrum metalurgii miedzi. Dla lepszego poznania procesu odzyskiwania srebra od miedzi, dokonano badań żużli archeologicznych, odkrytych na terenie dawnej, piętnastowiecznej huty Jana Turzo w Mogile. Podjęte badania koncentrowały się na analizach historycznych oraz rozpoznaniu materiału archeologicznego pod względem technologicznym. Wyniki analiz porównano z efektami badań współczesnych żużli hutniczych z procesu wytwarzania miedzi. Wyniki badań wskazują, że zarówno w żużlu z huty miedzi w Mogile, jak i w aktualnie otrzymywanym żużlu, w procesie zawiesinowym występują kuliste wtrącenia „miedzi metalicznej” i dyspersyjna miedź. Badania składu chemicznego żużli historycznych wykazały dużą różnorodność pierwiastków metalicznych obecnych w materiale. Z analiz wynika, że największe stężenie we wszystkich badanych przypadkach żużli archeologicznych wyznaczono dla: miedzi oraz żelaza, ołowiu i antymonu. Zarejestrowano też niewielki udział srebra.

EN

Krakow has centuries-old, testified by sources and research, metallurgical and foundry traditions. It is possible that as early as the 12th century Krakow's market was the production place of non-ferrous metals artefacts, which is attested by finds of casting crucibles and furnace relics with copper traces. In the 14th century, at the Market Square there was the Great Scales for copper, lead and iron, as well as a metal melting shops mentioned in the royal charter of Casimir the Great. Since the 15th century, in Krakow's vicinity, metallurgical industry developed. A great entrepreneur, Jan Turzo, founded a copper smelter in Mogiła (today's Nowa Huta), where he implemented an innovative method of silver plating of copper with the help of lead. Archaeological research conducted between 2005 and 2011 at the Main Market Square in Krakow, together with the accompanying metal science investigations of the artefacts discovered, evidence Krakow's role as the European centre of metal trade. At the same time, the discovery of the production traces of the medieval smelter in Mogiła near Krakow, points to Krakow as the centre of modern copper metallurgy. For better understanding of the process of silver recovery from copper, archaeological slags discovered at the old, 15th century copper smelter of Jan Turzo in Mogiła, were investigated. The research focused on historical analysis and identification of the archaeological material from technological perspective. The research results were compared with the effects of contemporary smelter slags investigation; the slags coming from copper production process. The obtained results show that both in the Mogiła slag and in the present-day slag received from suspension process there are spherical inclusions of 'metallic copper' and strongly dispersive copper precipitates. The chemical analysis of the historical slag showed a wide variety of metallic elements present in the material; the greatest concentration in all samples of the archaeological slags was determined for copper and iron, lead and antimony. A small share of silver was also registered.

15

Artefacts from Krakow-Nowa Huta as an illustration of selected issues of research into prehistoric and mediaeval casting

Garbacz-Klempka A., Rzadkosz S., Górski J.

Metallurgy and Foundry Engineering

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2013

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Vol. 39, no. 2

23--28

EN

An attempt to examine the earliest traces of non-ferrous metal metallurgy and casting in present-day Krakow has been made. The preparatory investigation has centred around a group of finds coming from a small section of the eastern part of the city, the area of Nowa Huta. The paper gives an overall view of objects ranging from the first copper artefacts from the territory of Poland in the 4th millennium BC through Lusatian bronzes and Celtic products to modern slag from Jan Thurzo’s copper smelter. The analysis, involving diverse copper or copper alloy artefacts, ornaments and tools – both imports and local products – has been aimed at preliminary identification of Krakow’s earliest metal artefacts in terms of their materials and methods of production, and at preparing the ground for further study. This multifaceted research is intended to result in a comparison of materials and techniques used in metallurgy and casting during the timespan of 5000 years.

PL

Podjęto próbę zbadania najstarszych śladów metalurgii i odlewnictwa metali nieżelaznych na terenie dzisiejszego Krakowa. Do pierwszych badań wybrano znaleziska z niewielkiego obszaru we wschodniej części Krakowa, obejmującego rejon Nowej Huty. Przedstawiono pierwsze zabytki miedziane z ziem polskich z IV tysiąclecia p.n.e., brązy kultury łużyckiej, wyroby celtyckie, aż po nowożytny żużel z huty miedzi Jana Thurzo. Do analizy wybrano zabytki miedziane i wykonane ze stopów miedzi, ozdoby i narzędzia, będące zarówno importami, jak i przedmiotami wykonanymi na miejscu. Celem pracy była wstępna identyfikacja materiałów, z których wykonano najstarsze zabytki metalowe odnalezione na terenie Krakowa, ustalenie technik wytwórczych, dzięki którym powstały, a także przygotowanie dalszych badań w tym zakresie. Rezultatem wielopłaszczyznowych badań będzie porównanie stosowanych surowców i materiałów oraz technik metalurgicz nych i odlewniczych na przestrzeni pięciu tysięcy lat.

16

Archaeological remains of the copper metallurgy in Lower Silesia

Garbacz-Klempka A., Rzadkosz S., Stolarczyk T., Piękoś M., Kozana J.

Metallurgy and Foundry Engineering

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2013

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Vol. 39, no. 2

s. 29--36

EN

Many traces of copper metallurgy, such as slag and other copper melts, can be found in the area of Lower Silesia. The tested material mainly consists of copper slag with different content of copper melts, being a semi product. The copper metallurgy remains, discovered during the research, undergo specialistic analyses, which will help better characterise the findings as well as contribute to documenting metallurgical processes in the historical bloomeries in Lower Silesia, and moreover to prepare further research in this field. The material coming from the area of Miedzianka, being the oldest and the longest working exploitation centre of copper ores and pollymetalic ores, is of special significance for the research. Mining activity in the area of Miedzianka took place as early as the beginning of the 14th century, the first record from 1311 (Cuprifodina in montubus) is the oldest information concerning copper mining in Poland.

PL

Dolny Śląsk jest terenem, na którym odnaleziono liczne ślady metalurgii miedzi w postaci żużli i wytopów miedzianych. Badany materiał stanowią głównie żużle miedzi o zróżnicowanej zawartości miedzi i wytopki miedziane, mające charakter półproduktu. Odkryte w czasie badań pozostałości metalurgii miedzi poddawane są specjalistycznym analizom, co pozwala na lepsze scharakteryzowanie znalezisk i przyczyni się do udokumentowania procesów metalurgicznych na terenie historycznie działających hut Dolnego Śląska oraz przygotowania dalszych badań w tym zakresie. Szczególnie istotny dla badań jest materiał metalurgiczny pochodzący z rejonu Miedzianki, będącego najstarszym i najdłużej działającym ośrodkiem eksploatacji rud miedzi i rud polimeta licznych na Dolnym Śląsku. Okręg górniczy w rejonie Miedzianki funkcjonował przynajmniej od początków XIV w., a pierwsza wzmianka na jej temat z 1311 r. (Cuprifodina in montubus) jest najstarszą informacją na temat górnictwa miedzi na terenie Polski.

17

Metallurgy of copper in the context of metallographic analysis of archeological materials excavated at the Market Square in Krakow

Garbacz-Klempka A., Rzadkosz S.

Archives of Metallurgy and Materials

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2009

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Vol. 54, iss. 2

281-288

EN

The paper looks at the history of copper exploitation and smelting from ancient times. Historical background serves the purpose of presenting research issues associated with archaeological samples gained through excavations at the Market Square in Krakow, that is semi-products deriving from the copper and ore recovery process. Copper imported from the area of the present-day Slovakia was given the greatest importance in medieval Poland. Krakow then played a key role in the European copper trade. In the 15th century, a copper smelter in Mogila near Krakow handled raw copper rafination. Availability of raw materials enabled rapid development of foundry. Traces of activities associated with metal (mostly copper and lead) preparation for trading and production date back to the 13th century; the peak period was the 15th century. The said materials expand the database of metallographic analysis of archaeological materials and provide opportunities for comparison of local finds with domestic and European collections; this in turn will contribute to better understanding of old metallurgical and foundry processes.

PL

Praca przybliża zagadnienia związane z eksploatacją i wytapianiem miedzi od czasów starożytnych. Tło historyczne służy przedstawieniu kwestii badawczych związanych z materiałem archeologicznym pozyskanym, w ramach prac wykopaliskowych na Rynku Głównym w Krakowie, w postaci półproduktów z procesu otrzymywania miedzi z rud. W Polsce w okresie średniowiecza największe znaczenie miała miedź importowana z terenów Słowacji. Kraków wówczas odgrywał wielka rolę w handlu miedzią w skali europejskiej. W XV wieku działała huta miedzi w Mogile pod Krakowem, w której następował proces rafinacji miedzi surowej. Dostepność surowca była jednym z czynników umozliwiających szybki rozwój odlewnictwa. Na Rynku w Krakowie ślady działalności związanej z przygotowaniem metalu (głównie miedzi i ołowiu) do handlu i produkcji pojawiają się od XIII wieku, a nasilają w wieku XV. Posiadany materiał pozwoli wzbogacić bazę analiz metaloznawczych zabytków archeologicznych i poszerzy mozliwości porównania miejscowych znalezisk z krajowymi i europejskimi zbiorami, co przyczyni się do lepszego rozpoznania dawnych procesów metalurgicznych i odlewniczych.

18

Quartz TL dating on selected layers from archaeometallurgical kiln fragments: a proposed procedure to overcome age dispersion

Zacharias N., Michael C. T., Georgakopoulou M., Kilikoglou V., Bassiakos Y.

Geochronometria

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2006

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Vol. 25

29-35

EN

TL dating of archaeometallurgical kiln remains provides information about the chronological period of the corresponding activities. Due to the high temperature this material has usually been subjected to, changes in the TL sensitivity of the quartz grains and also indications of mineralogical alterations, can be present. The study provides absolute ages for kiln assemblages from two prehistoric sites on the island of Seriphos (Cyclades, Greece). Additionally, as the study highlights sources of potential errors, a methodological approach for luminescence dating of similar material is presented.