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Fajans ze starożytnego Egiptu – pierwsza w dziejach ludzkości ceramika typu high-tech – tajemnice technologii produkcji

Trzciński Jerzy, Zaremba Małgorzata, Nachyła Olga

Szkło i Ceramika

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2021

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R. 72, nr 3

17--22

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Preliminary report on engineering properties and environmental resistance of ancient mud bricks from Tell el-Retaba archaeological site in the Nile delta

Trzciński J., Zaremba M., Rzepka S., Welc F., Szczepański T.

Studia Quaternaria

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2016

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Vol. 33, Nr 1

47--56

EN

The archaeological site Tell el-Retaba in north-eastern Egypt, about 35 km to the west of Ismailia city, is located in the middle of Wadi Tumilat, a shallow valley running from the Nile Delta to the Bitter Lakes, along which flows the Suez Canal. In ancient times the valley was a route between Egypt and Syro-Palestine, strongly fortified in the New Kingdom times (16th–11th century BC). Mud bricks were analyzed from two parts of the Wall 1 (core of grey-brown bricks and inner extension of green bricks) in a fortress which existed during the Ramesses II times. Grain-size composition of the studied bricks was almost identical in both parts of the wall, suggesting the same source material for a production of brick. However, significant differences were observed in physical and mechanical properties (uniaxial compressive strength) in both types of bricks. Bricks from the core had lower bulk density, higher porosity and soak faster, whereas their resistance parameters were much lower than those of the bricks from the inner extension. The reason for such large differences in brick properties was a technology of their production, particularly proportion of components, water volume added during brick formation or density degree. Brick preparation and in consequence, physical-mechanical properties had direct influence on preservation of defensive structures during environmental changes related to changes of groundwater and surface water levels or of precipitation. Ancient Egyptians responsible for construction works in mud brick structures of the fortress must have had good knowledge and experience. This could be observed particularly for the heaviest and most important construction element that is the defensive wall, founded on well-densified deposits. It was also testified by higher resistance of green bricks from the inner extensions, which probably originated slightly later and were intended to reinforce a weaker core built of grey-brown bricks.

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RB NQBNM – Przełożony górników z II tysiąclecia p.n.e.

Rozmus D.

Hereditas Minariorum

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2015

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Vol. 2

9--25

PL

Na początku XX wieku na półwyspie Synaj, podczas archeologicznego rozpoznania pozostałości starożytnego górnictwa turkusów, odkryto w kopalniach w rejonie Serabit el–Khadem inskrypcje egipskie oraz inne, będące uproszczonym systemem fonetycznego zapisu opartego na egipskich hieroglifach, nazwanym później pismem proto-synajskim. Kilkadziesiąt lat później inskrypcje proto-synajskie odkryto w kopalni miedzi w Timna w Izraelu oraz w 2009 r. w Wadi el–Hol nieopodal Teb w Egipcie. Pismo proto-synajskie obecnie uważane jest za pismo będące najstarszym alfabetem przystosowanym do zapisu języków północnozachodnio-semickich. Przypuszczano, że jego twórcami są kananejscy (?) górnicy pracujący na potrzeby egipskich władców. W wielu wariantach odczytań tych inskrypcji pojawiają się odniesienia do górnictwa. W kilku przypadkach tłumaczeń osiągnięto wyniki, które są przyjmowane w większości przez środowisko naukowe. Wśród odczytań inskrypcji istotnych dla tematu tego artykułu jedno odnosi się do uwielbionej „patronki” górników, brzmi ono Dla Pani – lb ‘ lt. Szanowaną Panią jest egipska bogini Hathor, która wydaje się być patronką ówczesnych synajskich górników, prawdopodobnie bez względu na ich pochodzenie etniczne. Kolejne odczytanie innej inskrypcji jest również intrygujące. Napis wymienia „szefa górników” – rb nqbnm, postać całkowicie świecką. Hipoteza ta jest obecnie podważana ponieważ status społeczny pracujących na pustyni robotników nie kojarzy się ze środowiskiem intelektualnie zdolnym do stworzenia takiego przełomowego dla rozwoju cywilizacji wynalazku jakim jest alfabet. Autor artykułu nie zgadza się z takim ujęciem tego zagadnienia argumentując, że prowadzenie prac wydobywczych (i hutniczych) wymaga istnienia złożonej struktury organizacyjnej o charakterze przedsiębiorstwa, w którym nisko wykwalifikowani robotnicy i niewolnicy mogli wykonywać tylko najprostsze prace. Rozwój kopalni, poszukiwanie nowych złóż, zbyt surowca, aprowizacja i inne zadania potrzebne do przetrwania ludzi na pustyni musiały być w rękach odpowiednich, wykształconych kadr. Powstanie w tym kręgu idei pisma alfabetycznego można uznać za bardzo prawdopodobne.

EN

At the beginning of the 20th century, Egyptian inscriptions as well as other inscriptions – a simplified writing system, later called Proto-Sinaitic writing, were discovered on the Sinai Peninsula in mines situated near Serabit el–Khadem during an archaeological reconnaissance of the remains of the ancient turquoise mining. After several dozen years Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions were also discovered in the copper mine in Timna in Israel and in Wadi el-Hol near the Egyptian Thebes in 2009. It is currently believed that the Proto-Sinaitic writing used the oldest alphabet which was later adapted to writing the characters used in the Northwest Semitic languages. It was assumed that the writing had been created by Canaanite miners working for Egyptian rulers. Several references to mining appear in numerous variants of readings of the inscriptions. In case of a few translations, the majority of the results achieved are recognised by scientists. Among the readings of the inscriptions that refer to the subject matter of this article, one refers to the beloved “patron” of the Sinai miners of the time, and reads For the Lady – lb‘lt. This respected Lady is the Egyptian goddess Hathor, who seems to be the patron of the contemporary Sinai miners, presumably irrespective of their ethnic origin. The next reading of another inscription is also intriguing. The inscription mentions “the miners’ boss” – rb nqbnm, an entirely lay person. This hypothesis has now been undermined, as the social status of the workers working in the desert was not associated with the intellectual circles that were capable of creating such a ground-breaking invention in the development of the civilisation as is the alphabet. The author opposes to such an approach, arguing that conducting mining (and smelting) required a complex organizational structure resembling that of an enterprise, in which poorly skilled workers and slaves were only able to carry out the easiest work. The development of the mines, searching for new deposits, selling the resources, provisioning and other tasks that were necessary to survive in the desert must have been arranged by educated personnel. It is therefore highly probable that indeed those were the people who came up with the idea of an alphabetic writing.

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Starożytności egipskie w XIX wieku, na podstawie twórczości Davida Robertsa i XIX-wiecznej prasy angielskiej

Kwiatkowska-Baster B.

Wiadomości Konserwatorskie

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2011

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Nr 29

77-90

PL

Starożytny Egipt i materialne przejawy jego kultury od najdawniejszych czasów wzbudzały zainteresowanie badaczy i podróżników. Już Herodot, Diodor Sycylijski i Strabon próbowali stworzyć opis krainy o liczącej ponad dwa i pół tysiąca lat historii. Późniejsze stulecia przynosiły raczej wypaczony obraz popadającej w zapomnienie cywilizacji, aż do czasu relacji badaczy z afrykańskiej ekspedycji Napoleona. Jednak dopiero książki, a najszerzej zyskujące w XIX wieku coraz większą popularność czasopisma rozpowszechniły wiedzę na temat egipskich starożytności. Wśród nich najwięcej miejsca nowo odkrywanej kulturze poświęciły ukazujące się w Londynie "Ilustrated London News" oraz "The Graphic", opisując odsłaniane spod piasku najznakomitsze zabytki, relacjonując wydarzenia związane z przewożeniem wielu z nich do Europy i Ameryki, piętnując bezmyślną dewastację dzieł sztuki o bezcennej wartości. Panorama Egiptu powstawała niezależnie w dziełach artystów - malarzy i rysowników, wśród których wyróżniają się prace Davida Robertsa, posiadające wręcz dokumentalną wartość.

EN

Ancient Egypt and material aspects of its culture have excited interest among scientists and travellers since time immemorial. Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus and Strabo already tried to create a description of the land with over two and a half thousand years of history. Later centuries brought a rather distorted picture of a civilisation slowly sinking into oblivion, until the time of Napoleon's African expedition and the reports of his scientists. However, it was books, and especially magazines which gained increasing popularity in the 19th century that popularized the knowledge concerning Egyptian antiquities. Among those the "Illustrated London News" and "The Graphic", published in London, devoted most space to the newly-discovered culture describing the magnificent monuments revealed in the sand, relating events connected with transporting many of them to Europe and America, and stigmatising thoughtless devastation of priceless works of art. The Panorama of Egypt was created independently in works of numerous painters and graphic artists, among which the works by David Roberts stand out as being of almost documentary value.

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Copper metallurgy in ancient Egypt

Ghoneim M. A.

Prace Naukowe Instytutu Górnictwa Politechniki Wrocławskiej. Konferencje

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2005

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Vol. 110, nr 42

297-309

EN

Metallurgy of copper in ancient Egypt, which is thought to be relevant to archaeologists and who are interested in mining and metallurgy, is reviewed. Copper ores in ancient Egypt and mines in Sinai and Eastern Desert between the Nile and Red Sea are mentioned. The extraction steps of copper from ores (roasting, smelting and refining) and copper casting and making metallic alloys, because of their importance, were discussed. In addition, examples of copper tools and artifacts through the ancient Egyptian periods were presented.

PL

Artykuł zawiera informacje dotyczące metalurgii miedzi starożytnego Egiptu, szczególnie polecane dla zainteresowanych starożytnym wykorzystaniem metali, metalurgią i górnictwem. Omówiono kopalnie rudy miedzi starożytnego Egiptu - na półwyspie Synaj oraz na pustyni między Nilem i Morzem Czerwonym. Przedstawiono metody pozyskiwania miedzi z rud (topienie w piecach, rafinacja) i metody obróbki miedzi (odlewnictwo, sporządzanie stopów). Z powodu ich dużego znaczenia są one poparte kilkoma przykładami starożytnych narzędzi miedzianych oraz artefaktów.

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Starożytny Egipt w podręcznikach szkolnych czasów Komisji Edukacji Narodowej

Kaczmarek H.

Kwartalnik Historii Nauki i Techniki

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2004

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R. 49, nr 3/4

39--70

EN

Analysis of information on Ancient Egypt in the textbooks of K.J. Skrzetuski and D.A.G. Szybiński, as well as in the dissertations by H. Borzęcki, M. Wolski or W. Piwnicki, shows that they carried comparable information, but differed in what information was highlighted. The names of Egyptian rulers found in them, as well as the factography, were derived from a variety of ancient sources and contemporary works on the subject. Some of the names that appear in the textbooks have been taken form Homer (Proteus), Herodotus (e.g. Phero Cheops), Diodorus Siculus (e.g. Busiris, Uchoros), but also from Manethon (e.g. Athothis, Thosorthros). The authors of the textbooks and dissertations did not always make an attempt to order the data obtained from their reading in a chronological manner. One problem that turned out to be insurmountable for them involved trying to establish a chronology of ancient Egypt based on the works of ancient writers and to reconcile it with that based on the Bible. What is remarkable about the textbooks, however, is the fact that for the first time in Polish teaching of history they attempted to combine, albeit not always successfully, history with geographical description. There were also some rather inept attempts to comprise all the history of humanity exclusively within the framework of historia profana. The material gathered by the authors of the textbooks of the Age of Enlightenment is very interesting from the point of view of the history of knowledge and learning. It makes it possible to determine the state of knowledge gained in the Polish school system of that period and to understand many seemingly bizarre egyptological theories that appeared as late as in the 19th century. Polish textbooks of the Age of Enlightenment were the main source of knowledge on the history of Egypt for several generations of Poles, and they affected their perception of the history of that distant country at a time when a fascination with the Orient began to be observed among the educated elite of the country. Those textbooks reflected the state of research on ancient Egypt, and just as the scholarly dissertations, they were based on the same sources and contemporary syntheses.