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Wykorzystanie bezzałogowych statków powietrznych w świetle prawa międzynarodowego i bezpieczeństwa Polski

Maciąg Paweł

Studia Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego

2019

R. 9, Nr 15

317--339

Gwałtowny rozwój nowoczesnej technologii wojskowej i cywilnej związanej z bezzałogowymi statkami powietrznymi wymaga kodyfikacji w prawie międzynarodowym. Wykorzystanie BSP nasuwa fundamentalne pytania prawne i wynikające z nich bariery, które wiążą się z faktem, że wykorzystanie i użycie dronów jest ograniczone do jurysdykcji stron. Działanie z użyciem BSP ma głównie charakter eksterytorialny. Rodzi to wiele istotnych, nierozstrzygniętych problemów związanych z prawem międzynarodowym i międzynarodowym prawem humanitarnym. Celem artykułu jest próba odniesienia się do tych kwestii. Obowiązujące ramy prawne nie są bowiem adekwatne do współczesnej sytuacji międzynarodowej. W artykule wskazuje się, że mimo ułomności prawnych jest możliwe w oparciu o obecne przepisy de lege lata, w tym o Kartę Narodów Zjednoczonych, konwencję chicagowską, konwencje haskie i genewskie, Reżim Kontroli Technologii Rakietowych, a także Powszechną Deklarację Praw Człowieka regulowanie w pewnym stopniu wykorzystywania BSP. Uzasadniona wydaje się również konkluzja de lege ferenda, że wielostronna konwencja międzynarodowa może być najlepszym rozwiązaniem regulacji prawnej w odniesieniu do BSP.

This article examines acquiring and use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) in the light of security of Poland and international law. Most UAV’s are used for intelligence gathering, surveillance and reconnaissance in peacetime and during war. UAV can also carry a range of explosive ordnance, including missiles and bombs. There is a rapid technological transformation in warfare with ever more equipment and weapons being delegated to unmanned vehicles controlled by humans thought remote computer systems. The use of UAV invokes fundamental legal questions with regard to international law and international humanitarian law. Can UAV be considered a lawful weapon? Can the state conduct an attack with UAV outside of an armed conflict or simply outside its own jurisdiction and territory? Are UAV strikes a violation of international law? Are there legal limits to UAV’s use? What are legal conditions governing the permissibility of UAV strikes? Is there a need for new law, legal basis to regulate the use of UAV, including purpose of conducting strikes? The paper tackles with such legal issues. Crucial point is that there are no specific international treaties or conventions regulating the status and legality of UAVs. It is underlined that the gaps can be filled up de lege lata with the fundamental legal acts like UN Charter, Geneva and Haque Conventions, Convention on International Civil Aviation, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Important legal point is that UAV’s have in common a human involvement. Such devices are remotely controlled or semi-controlled by the operator or a team. Decision regarding launch attack is still mostly in human hands (exemption are the most technologically advanced systems like AEGIS). Poland with a group of NATO Allies established the Alliance Ground Surveillance (AGS) - a program that will enable to perform persistent surveillance over wide surface areas from high altitude. This operation will be performed by high altitude, long endurance UAV’s i.e. Global Hawk. It seems clear than for the near future, it cannot be guaranteed that fully autonomous weapons systems will be able to comply with International Law, especially International Humanitarian Law. It should be appropriate to suggest de lege ferenda that states should cease restating the clause in treaties or other international instruments. A framework convention, which brings parties to the table and enables the development of a multilateral convention, may be the best solution to the regulation of UAVs.

The performance of extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) on stability of Aerobic granular sludge (AGS)

Na Hamiruddin, Na Awang, Mg Shaaban

Civil and Environmental Engineering Reports

2019

Vol. 29, no. 3

60--69

Various article which indicating the Aerobic granular sludge (AGS) instability, particularly in prolonged phase operating duration become a significant obstacle to its implementation. Generally, prolonged the operation period will lost its stability that can degrade performance effectiveness. As AGS stabilization in hydrodynamic shear force and resisting mass transfer resistance within the reactor generally defined or evaluated by microbial community, bioactivity, extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) structure and granular aspect. The aim of this research in order to illustrate the EPS formation on AGS which is preserved at 4°C in sequencing batch reactor (SBR) by sewage for eight months. The effective of granulation method and redevelopment of AGS stability by particular pressure produced with several hydrodynamic shear force and mass transfer resistance which controlled by low organic loading rate (OLR) between 0.26 and 0.81 kg CODs/m³ d with 1.33 cm/s of superficial air velocity (SAV). The confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDX) were implemented to notice the evolution in composition of EPS that revealed the intermolecular interaction helped the aerobic granule stability as seed to achieved the performance of EPS on stability of AGS.