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1

Extension of a phase transformation model for partial hardening in hot stamping

Hart-Rawung T., Buhl J., Bambach M.

Journal of Machine Engineering

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2018

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Vol. 18, No. 3

87--97

EN

The quality of predicted microstructural and mechanical properties in hot stamping simulations relies considerably on the material model. Many researchers studied the effect of the plastic deformation on the phase transformation of the most commonly used hot stamping steel 22MnB5, and proved that the deformation applied at high temperature promotes the formation of ferrite, pearlite and bainite. This behaviour has to be integrated into materials modelling. In this study, the effect of pre-strain on the phase transformation of the material is considered. The specimens are heated to austenitization temperature, isothermally deformed at 700°C, and quenched down to room temperature. The phase fractions and the temperature-dilatation behaviour obtained from the experiments are used to calibrate the material model. By using the experimental data obtained from dilatometer testing, the accuracy of the material model is evaluated. Additionally, an attempt to predict the results between the tested data points by using interpolation was made and compared with the simulation results.

2

Decomposition algorithm for tool path planning for wire-arc additive manufacturing

Nguyen L., Buhl J., Bambach M.

Journal of Machine Engineering

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2018

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Vol. 18, No. 1

95--106

EN

Three-axis machines are limited in the production of geometrical features in powder-bed additive manufacturing processes. In case of overhangs, support material has to be added due to the nature of the process, which causes some disadvantages. Robot-based wire-arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is able to fabricate overhangs without adding support material. Hence, build time, waste of material, and post-processing might be reduced considerably. In order to make full use of multi-axis advantages, slicing strategies are needed. To this end, the CAD (computer-aided design) model of the part to be built is first partitioned into sub-parts, and for each sub-part, an individual build direction is identified. Path planning for these sub-parts by slicing then enables to produce the parts. This study presents a heuristic method to deal with the decomposition of CAD models and build direction identification for sub-entities. The geometric data of two adjacent slices are analyzed to construct centroidal axes. These centroidal axes are used to navigate the slicing and building processes. A case study and experiments are presented to exemplify the algorithm.

3

Joining by upset bulging – tooling design and new concepts for online process control using servo presses and local heating

Sviridov A., Grützner P., Rusch M., Bambach M.

Journal of Machine Engineering

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2017

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Vol. 17, No. 1

78--87

EN

Conventional fusion-welding techniques pose limitations in modern multi-material assemblies due to the heat input. The negative influence of the heat-affected zone on the material properties must be avoided particularly in high-strength steels. During mechanical joining processes, which may also be used for joining of different materials e.g. steel and aluminium, high-performance joints can be produced without degradation of the material properties. Joining by upset bulging is an innovative joining method based on plastic buckling of tubes under axial compression. In previous investigations of joining by upset bulging the process parameters were determined and joints of tubes with sheet metal were tested under static and dynamic loads. The results of these studies have shown that the process of upset bulging has a large potential for the production of joints of tubes with sheets and plates. The present paper focuses on the tooling concepts for an efficient use of the technology and describes methods to control the forming and joining process. Two aspects are covered: (i) the application of servo-presses for joining by upset bulging and their possibilities for on-line process control, (ii) a moderate, process-integrated local heating of the forming area to avoid the formation of cracks and to further increase the strength of the joints.

4

Towards intelligent materials testing with reduced experimental effort for hot forming

Bambach M., Imran M., Buhl J., Härtel S., Awiszus B.

Computer Methods in Materials Science

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2017

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Vol. 17, No. 1

44--50

EN

Hot forming processes are typically used to deform metals to the desired shape at lower forming forces and to control the microstructure. During hot deformation, the microstructure evolves by dynamic recrystallization after certain critical conditions are reached. The final recrystallized grain size controls the post-hot forming mechanical properties of metals and components. To predict the evolution of microstructure and flow stress, various material models were developed and implemented in finite element codes. They require a significant number of material-dependent parameters. Currently, experimental designs with a full-factorial approach for a range of temperature and strain rates are utilized to determine the desired parameters, which involve a huge experimental effort. The aim of this paper is to propose a methodology for parameter identification with reduced experimental effort where progression of testing and data evaluation is parallelized. An iterative, sequential approach is presented which optimizes the new testing conditions based upon preceding experimental conditions. The approach is exemplified for the high-temperature material Alloy-800H, using a material model that allows for accurate predictions of the flow stress. The developed strategy allows to achieve the desired accuracy of the material model by utilizing about a half of test matrix representing a full-factorial design. Hence, an efficient cost- and resource-optimized parametrization of models seems possible.

PL

Procesy plastycznej przeróbki na gorąco są zazwyczaj wykorzystywane zarówno do nadawania wymaganego kształtu wyrobom przy zastosowaniu mniejszych sił jak i do kontrolowania ich mikrostruktury. Mikrostruktura w czasie odkształcania na gorąco zmienia się pod wpływem rekrystalizacji dynamicznej, która występuje po osiągnięciu pewnych krytycznych warunków. Wielkość ziarna po rekrystalizacji wyznacza własności mechaniczne wyrobu po kształtowaniu. Aby przewidywać rozwój mikrostruktury i wielkość naprężenia uplastyczniającego opracowane zostały różne modele, które zaimplementowano w programach z metody elementów skończonych. Te modele wymagają wyznaczenia szeregu parametrów charakterystycznych dla danego materiału. Klasycznym podejściem do wyznaczenia tych parametrów jest przeprowadzenie pełnego cyklu badań w szerokim zakresie temperatur i prędkości odkształcenia, co jest to podejściem bardzo kosztownym. Dlatego za cel pracy postawiono sobie opracowanie metodologii identyfikacji parametrów modelu materiału na podstawie zredukowanej liczby doświadczeń, wykorzystując zrównoleglenie oceny danych. W artykule opisano iteracyjną, sekwencyjną procedurę optymalizującą warunki kolejnych prób doświadczalnych na podstawie wyników prób wcześniejszych. Jako przykład zastosowania tej procedury wybrano odkształcanie stopu 80011 w wysokich temperaturach. Identyfikowano model prawidłowo opisujący naprężenie uplastyczniające tego stopu. Zaproponowana strategia pozwoliła uzyskać wymaganą dokładność modelu wykorzystując połowę prób wynikających z pełnego planu eksperymentów. Przeprowadzona analiza potwierdziła możliwość wydajnej kosztowo identyfikacji modeli.

5

Finite Element Modelling of Titanium Aluminides

Sizova I., Sviridov A., Günther M., Bambach M.

Computer Methods in Materials Science

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2017

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Vol. 17, No. 1

51--58

EN

Hot forging is an important process for shaping and property control of lightweight titanium aluminide parts. Dynamic recrystallization and phase transformations play an essential role for the resulting grain size and accordingly the mechanical properties. Due to the fact that titanium aluminides require forging under isothermal conditions, reliable process modeling is needed to predict the microstructure evolution, to optimize the process time and to avoid excessive die loads. In the present study an isothermal forging process of a compressor blade made of TNB-V4 (Ti–44.5Al–6.25Nb–0.8Mo–0.1B, at. %) is modeled using the Finite Element (FE) – Software Q-Form. A microstructure model describing the microstructure evolution during forging is presented. To calibrate the model, the high-temperature deformation behavior was investigated using isothermal compression tests. The tests were carried out at temperatures from 1150°C to 1300°C, applying strain rates ranging from 0.001s-1 to 0.5s-1, up to a true strain of 0.9. The experimentally determined flow stress data were described with model equations determined form the course of the strain hardening rate in Kocks-Mecking plots. An isothermal forging process of a compressor blade was carried out and used to validate the results from the FE simulations.

PL

Plastyczna przeróbka na gorąco jest ważnym procesem po-zwalającym nadawać kształt i kontrolować własności wyrobów z glinków tytanu. Dynamiczna rekrystalizacja i przemiany fazowe odgrywają kluczową rolę w kształtowaniu końcowej wielkości ziarna i, w konsekwencji, własności mechanicznych wyrobu. Ponieważ glinki tytanu wymagają kucia w warunkach izotermicznych, potrzebny jest dokładny model rozwoju mikrostruktury aby umożliwić optymalizację czasu trwania procesu i aby uniknąć przeciążenia matryc. W niniejszej pracy proces kucia łopatki kompresora został zamodelowany metodą elementów skończonych (MES) z wykorzystaniem programu Q-Form. Badanym materiałem był stop TNB-V4 (Ti—44.5Al-6.25Nb-0.8Mo-0.IB, at. %). W pracy przedstawiono zastosowany model rozwoju mikrostruktury. Model został skalibrowany na podstawie wyników prób ściskania na gorąco w warunkach izotermicznych. Badania przeprowadzono w temperaturach w zakresie 1150°C - 1300°C i dla prędkości odkształcenia w zakresie 0.001 s"1 d 0.5 s' . Całkowite odkształcenie w tych próbach wynosiło 0.9. Wyznaczone doświadczalnie naprężenie uplastyczniające zostało opisane za pomocą prędkości umocnienia zgodnie z krzywymi Kocksa-Meckinga. Fizyczny proces kucia łopatki kompresora został wykorzystany do walidacji modelu MES.

6

Recent Trends in Metal Forming: From Process Simulation and Microstructure Control In Classical Forming Processes to Hybrid Combinations Between Forming and Additive Manufacturing

Bambach M.

Journal of Machine Engineering

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2016

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Vol. 16, No. 2

5--17

EN

This paper describes some recent trends in metal forming such as isothermal forging of titanium aluminides and process combinations between metal forming and additive manufacturing. These trends rely on accurate process and material models for process design. Process and material models must hence be able to track the microstructure evolution in complex materials such as titanium aluminides as well as predict the microstructure evolution along process histories with multiple deformation and/or heat input steps. In models for such processes, JMAK-type kinetics for and phase transformation are still common. For processes involving deformation and heat, the accuracy, consistency and limits of JMAK-type models are discussed. It is shown that the consistency of DRX models as well as the stability of model predictions in multi-stage processes require further attention.

7

Materials modelling in industrial bulk metal forming processes and process chains

Hirt G., Bambach M., Lohmar J., Guvenc O., Henke T., Schwich G.

Computer Methods in Materials Science

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2015

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Vol. 15, No.1

5--12

EN

Bulk metal forming processes range from processes with a single deformation step such as certain closed-die forging operations to processes with many subsequent stages such as hot rolling, ring rolling or open die forging. Modelling of these manufacturing processes requires both precise process models as well as adequate material models. Microstructure evolution by recrystallization is decisive in all of these processes since the microstructure determines the flow stress and hence the forming forces but it also influences the product properties. In this context, the propagation of variations in the processing conditions and in the material behavior are of special importance and methods for the quantification of uncertainties and their effect on model predictions are required. Such questions can be approached using models of different complexity on various scales as shown in the following examples: In closed die forging of a gear wheel from 25MoCr4 alloy the complex geometry requires a Finite Element process model which in this case is combined with a JMAK type material model. In plate rolling a simplified process model can be applied successfully. Based on the slab theory, which is enhanced for spatial resolution of shear strain using a meta model derived by FEM, this model can simulate even longer roll pass schedules within seconds and offers the possibility to combine it with numerical optimization techniques. Recrystallization of a high-manganese steel in interpass times between hot rolling passes is an example where models with spatial resolution (CP-FEM and phase field) are combined on the micro-scale to predict the recrystallization kinetics based on physically meaningful variables such as grain boundary mobility. In ring rolling the process model must include the closed-loop control system of the rolling machine to achieve a realistic prediction of the process kinematics. Feedback control loops for up to eight kinematic degrees of freedom (velocities and positions of all radial, axial and guiding rolls) have been defined using virtual sensors integrated in the simulation. Offline coupling with microstructure simulation is used to predict the final grain size and determine under which conditions static recrystallization occurs during the rolling sequence.

8

Modelling of static recrystallization kinetics by coupling crystal plasticity FEM and multiphase field calculations

Güvenci O., Henke T., Laschet G., Böttger B., Apel M., Bambach M., Hirt G.

Computer Methods in Materials Science

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2013

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Vol. 13, No. 2

368--374

EN

In multi-step hot forming processes, static recrystallization (SRX), which occurs in interpass times, influences the microstructure evolution, the flow stress and the final product properties. Static recrystallization is often simply modeled based on Johnson-Mehl-Avrami-Kolmogorov (JMAK) equations which are linked to the visco-plastic flow behavior of the material. Such semi-empirical models are not able to predict the SRX grain microstructure. In this paper, an approach for the simulation of static recrystallization of austenitic grains is presented which is based on the coupling of a crystal plasticity method with a multiphase field approach. The microstructure is modeled by a representative volume element (RVE) of a homogeneous austenitic grain structure with periodic boundary conditions. The grain microstructure is generated via a Voronoi tessellation. The deformation of the RVE, considering the evolution of grain orientations and dislocation density, is calculated using a crystal plasticity finite element (CP-FEM) formulation, whose material parameters have been calibrated using experimental flow curves of the considered 25MoCrS4 steel. The deformed grain structure (dislocation density, orientation) is transferred to the FDM grid used in the multiphase field approach by a dedicated interpolation scheme. In the phase field calculation, driving forces for static recrystallization are calculated based on the mean energy per grain and the curvature of the grain boundaries. A simplified nucleation model at the grain level is used to initiate the recrystallization process. Under these assumptions, it is possible to approximate the SRX kinetics obtained from the stress relaxation test, but the grain morphology predicted by the 2d model still differs from experimental findings.

PL

W wielostopniowych procesach obróbki plastycznej, rekrystalizacja statyczna (ang. static recrystallization - SRX) występująca w czasach przerw między odkształceniami, wpływa na rozwój mikrostruktury, naprężenie uplastyczniające oraz właściwości gotowego produktu. Statyczna rekrystalizacja jest często modelowana korzystając z równania Johnson-Mehl- Avrami-Kolmogorov (JMAK), które jest powiązane z lepkoplastycznym płynięciem materiału. Taki pół-empiryczny model nie jest w stanie przewidzieć mikrostruktury ziaren dla SRX. W niniejszym artykule przedstawiono podejście do symulacji statycznej rekrystalizacji austenitu wykorzystujące połączenie plastyczności kryształów z metodą pola wielofazowego. Mikrostruktura jest modelowana za pomocą reprezentatywnych elementów objętości (ang: Representative Volume Element - RVE) jednorodnej struktury ziaren austenitu z okresowymi warunkami brzegowymi. Mikrostruktura jest generowana za pomocą wieloboków Voronoi. Obliczenia odkształcenia RVE są prowadzone połączonymi metodami plastyczności kryształów i MES, z uwzględnieniem rozwoju orientacji ziaren oraz gęstości dyslokacji. Parametry modelu materiału wyznaczono na podstawie doświadczalnych krzywych płynięcia dla stali 25MoCrS4. Odkształcona struktura ziaren (gęstość dyslokacji, orientacja) jest przekazywana do siatki różnic skończonych w modelu pola wielofazowego stosując metodę interpolacji. W obliczeniach pola faz, siły pędne dla statycznej rekrystalizacji są obliczane na podstawie średniej energii w ziarnie i krzywizny granic ziaren. W celu zainicjowania rekrystalizacji stosowany jest uproszczony model zarodkowania na poziomie ziarna. Przy tych założeniach możliwe było oszacowanie kinetyki SRX na podstawie badań relaksacji naprężeń. Z drugiej strony przewidywana w modelu 2D morfologia ziaren wciąż odbiega od wyników doświadczalnych.