The continental shelf in the law of the sea conventions of 1958 and 1982 and the principal of natural prolongation

• Autorzy: Wasilewski T.
• Języki publikacji: EN

Abstrakty

EN

The subject of the paper is the evolution of the concept of the continental shelf in international law, shown in the context of natural prolongation of the land territory of a coastal state co-creating this concept. The starting point for the analysis are the determinations of such specialised disciplines of science as: geography, oceanography and geology, and in consequence a possibly accurate topographic description of the sea and ocean floor, determination of the most important physiographic zones and of their characteristic features. This, only formally distinguished, but treated as one whole for meritoric and structural reasons three-element sequence, formed in the order: continental shelf in geographic/physical approach - continental slope -foot of continental slope, forms a common topographic feature called the continental margin. However, the reconstruction of the continental shelf concept in international law is not limited only to the description and characteristic of the continental margin in the horizontal plane. Appropriately to the needs of the paper, and to the extent the competence of the Author allowed, the margin is also described in the vertical dimension, i.e. going deeper into the essence of the natural factor, contained basically in the geomorphologic and geologic structure of the main physiographic provinces forming the continental margin. Such a view of the above problem allowed to obtain knowledge of motivations and of various arguments forming the essence and reach of the external limit of the continental shelf in the Geneva Convention on the continental shelf of I958, called further in text the GC IV ( I958). However, most important was to show and prove the thesis that it was the natural factor that dictated and shaped stipulations in international law with respect to the discussed subject, and that this factor played an extremely important role in the evolution and development of the continental shelf concept during the period after CG IV ( I958) was adopted. The principle, contained in the ITJ ruling on the continental shelf of the North Sea that the continental shelf is a natural prolongation of the territory of a coastal state, the natural prolongation principle, was well substantiated by the geomorphology and geophysical characteristics of the continental margin. This principle was also of primary importance for the shaping of the concept of the continental shelf and of its external boundary in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 1982, called below UNCLOS (1982).

Słowa kluczowe

EN

continental shelf; Geneva Convention

• Wydawca: Index Copernicus Sp. z o.o.
• Czasopismo: Biuletyn Instytutu Morskiego w Gdańsku
• Rocznik: 1998
• Tom: Vol. 25, No. 2
• Strony: 15--32
• Opis fizyczny: Bibliogr. 82 poz.

Twórcy

autor

Wasilewski T.

• Department of Economics and Law Maritime Institute, Gdańsk, Poland

Bibliografia

• [1] It should be noted that to some extent the formulated in the :xxth century doctrine of the continental shelf called on the 1858 Cornwall Submarine Mines Act, which treated fossils and minerals located on the bottom of the high seas adjoining to the land "as part of the soil and territorial possessions of the Crown" . F.A. Vallat, The Continental Shelf[in] British Yearbook of International Law (BYIL) 1946, p. 333-334.
• [2] Besides this, the term submarine areas was proposed calling on the British-Venezuelan Treaty of 1942; see M.W. Mouton, The Continental Shelf, the Hague 1952, p. 12; R.Youn&The legal status of submarine areas beneath the high seas, "American Journal oflnternational Law" (AJIL) vol. 45, 1951, p. 227.
• [3] This lineage was pointed out by: Background material on the juridical aspects of the continental shelf and marine waters (Chapter III of the Agenda), OAS. Ciudad Trujillo, Dominican Republic 1956 p. 1.
• [4] See J. Stanislawski, The Great English-Polish Dictionary, with supplement, Warszawa 1977 (A-N), p. 162, (0-Z), p. 249-250, (in Polish).
• [5] Used by the Argentinian Jose L. Suarez in relation with the proposition presented on 61 h April 1925 to the Legue of Nations. Extensive discussion in: T. Spivakova Pravo i prirodnyye resursy pribrenykh zon, Moscow 1978, p. 101-102.
• [6] More in: W. G6ralczyk, The continental shelf A study in international law, Warszawa 1957, p. 36-37, (in Polish). See also list of acts using the term "continental shelf' or similar in the period 1916-1952. T.A. Garaicoa, El Mar Territorial y El Mar Patrimonial, Universidad de Guayaquil 1973, p.92-94.
• [7] W. G6ralczyk, L 'evolution du concept de plateau continental [in:] Iranian Review of International Relations 1978. The New Law of the Sea (IRIR 1978), p. 121. An earlier date (1887) is given by P.R.R. Gardiner Reasons and methods for fixing the outer limit of the legal continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles [in:] ibid., p. 146.
• [8] See M.L. Jewett, The evolution of the legal regime of the continental shelf [in:] Canadian Yearbook of International Law (CYIL) vol. 22, 1984, p. 153 and next.
• [9] More in: C. Oilier, Tectonics and forms of landscape, (translated from English by J. Gawlik), Warszawa 1987, p. 286-287, (in Polish).
• [10] More in: ibid., p. 284-285; K.K. Turekian The Oceans, (translated from English by A. Majewski, A. Trzosinska), Warszawa 1979, p. 32 (in Polish); A.L. Shalowitz, Shore and sea boundaries, vol. 1, Washington 1962, p. 182-186. This is a wider concept of the shelf than geographical, since - as G.N. Cecatto has remarked, it is involved not only with bends of the shelfs edge, but it also takes into consideration structural relationships: the continental massif- sea bottom. The same: L'evolution Juridique de La Doctrine du Plateau Continental, Paris 1955, p. 20-24, 27-29; see also: Mezhdunarodnyy Rayon Dna mirowogo Okeana (ed. L.L.L. Lyubimov), Moscow 1980, p. 34-35. The above motive is clearly raised in the geological definition of the shelf of J.A. Roach, R.W. Smith, Excessive maritime claims [in:] International Law Studies, vol. 66, Newport 1994, p. 121, where they point out that its sense is different from the juridical sense in GC IV ( 1958).
• [11] If several bends are present the shelf is established as indicated by F. Shepard. See entry "kontinentalnyy shelf' [in:] The structure of continents and ocean - terminological dictionary, Eds. Y.A. Kosygin, V.A. Kuyndyshev, V.A. Solovev, Moscow 1979, p. 359, (in Russian).
• [12] More in: V.J. Shestopalov, The Persian Gulf: problem of the continental shelf, Moscow 1982, p. 3, (in Russian).
• [13] According to another source - even to 500 m and more, and the 200 m depth is considered as the mean depth. More in: K.K. Turekian Oceans ... , p. 32 and next, (in Russian); K. £omniewski, Physical Oceanography, Warszawa 1970, p. 98-103, (in Polish).
• [14] See G. Gidel, Laplatforma continental ante el derecho, Universidad de Valladolid 1951, p. 14-15.
• [15] V.Y. Shestopalov, Persian ... , p. 3, (in Russian); M.W. Mouton, The continental... , p. 22.
• [16] But in the case of the African shelf (Indian Ocean) the width is only 1-20 Nm, and in case of the Asian shelf it is only 1-4 Nm; More in: G.S. Ananev, O.K. Leontev, Geomorfologya materikov i oceanov, Moscow 1987, p. 213-215, (in Russian).
• [17] Together with the shelf it forms the continental terrace. See Memorandum Prepare par le Secretariat de L'Organisation des Nations Unies pour L'Education, La Science et La Culture [in:] I.C.J. Pleadings, Continental Shelf (TunisiaLibyan Arab Jamahiriya), vol. I, p. 440 and next.
• [18] More in: C. Oilier, Tectonics ... , p. 288, (in Polish).
• [19] See the diagram of sea nad ocean bottom. Mezhdunarodnoye morskoye pravo, Spravochnik, ed. G.S. Gorshkov, Moscow 1985, (in Rusian).
• [20] Ibidem.
• [21] More in: O.K. Leontev, L.G. Nikiforov, G.A. Safyanov, Geomorphology of sea coasts, (translated from Russian by S. Musielak and S. Rudowski), Warszawa 1982, p. 273 and next, (in Polish).
• [22] More in: C. Oilier, Tectonics ... , p. 288-289, (in Polish). Also the term foot of continental slope is used, and L. M. Alexander, basing on geological investigations states that in most cases it is located at the (average) depth of 2500 m; however there exist departures from that principle (e.g. along the west coast of South America the slope reaches 8000 m). Therefore the largest difficulty lies in the precise determination of the point which forms the boundary between the slope and the uprising, i.e. the position of the foot. The same author, Alternative methods for delimiting the outer boundary of the continental shelf[in:] United States Department of State (USDS) 1970, p. 18 and The seabed and the ocean floor. Future regimes: a survey of proposals [in:] New directions in the law of the sea, collected papers vol. III, London 1973 (NDLS CP), p. 127-128; see K.O. Emery, Geological aspects of sea-floor sovereignty [in:] Law of the sea. Offshore boundaries and zones (ed. L.M. Alexander), Ohio State University 1967 (LS OBZ), p. 150-151.
• [23] More in: C. Oilier, Tectonics ... , p. 283 and next, (in Polish).
• [24] More about this concept in: S.A. Kurenkov, A.S. Perfilev, Spreding v okeanicheskikh i kontinentalnykh strukturakh [in:] Aktualnyye problemy tektoniki okeanov i kontinentov (ed. P.P. Timofeyev) Moscow 1987, p. 153 and next, (in Russian).
• [25] The experimentally observed rule concerning the ocean bottom in general must be stressed: the undoubtedly thin layer of deposits resting on the bottom of oceans. The thickness of this so-called first layer directly below the sea floor is very variable, ranging within several hundred metres, and someti mes reaching over 2000 m. For example, on the Atlantic it is only 800 m, on the Pacific it is even thinner. More from the well-known American Program Mohole, realised within the framework of the Lamont Geological Observatory of the Columbia University in New York in the excellent work of two outstanding scientists: D.B. Ericson and G. Wollin, Ocean depths and the past of the Earth, (Polish translation H. Sylwestrzak and E. Wozny), Warszawa 1968, p. 383 and next, (in Polish).
• [26] See entry "kontinentalnay okraina" [in:] Structure ... , p.356-357, (in Polish).
• [27] The term"continental margin" is used in the Memorandum ... p. 441 and next; a geomorphological description together with maps of continental margins of oceans and diagrams. G.S. Ananev, O.K. Leontev Geomorphology ... , p. 185-259, (in Russian); S.R. Casey Jr., Precept for benthic exploration and exploitation, Dallas 1968, p. 37-38; R. Cullen, Federalism in action. The Australian and Canadian offshore disputes, Monash University 1990, p. 21; J.R. Clark, Coastal ecosystem management, New York, London, Sydney, Toronto 1977, p. 21. See A. Straburzynski, Exclusive economic zone and the continental shelf, "Przegl&d Stosunk6w Międzynarodowych" (PSM) 1982 No. 1-3, p. 152, (in Polish); A. Guilcher, The seabed and the ocean floor geo-physical characteristics NDLS CP, p. 109-110.
• [28] More in: C. Oilier, Tectonics ... , p. 283 and next, (in Polish).
• [29] K. K. Turekian, Oceans ... , p. 32 and 35, (in Polish).
• [30] More in: A. J. Smith, The scale of EEZs with particular reference to areas of US and UJ jurisdiction: problems associated with exploitation and also protection of EEZ resources [in:] Advances in Underwater Technology, Ocean Science and Offshore Engineering, vol. 8, Conference: London 1986 (AUT), p. 106-109; J. Polv&he, Les Arguments Geologiques et ['Extension de La Souverainete Nationale sur le Domaine Marin [in:] Les Fonds de Mers. Aspects juridiques, bilogiques et geologiques (C.A. Colliard, R.D. Dupuy, J. Polvethe, R. Vassiere), Paris 1971 (LFM), p. 102 and next; J.R.V. Prescott, Boundaries and Frontiers, London 1978, p. 149 and next.
• [31] More in: Diss. Op. De Castro. I.C.J. Aegean sea continental shelf case (Greece v. Turkey). Judgement of 19 XII 1978, p. 65.
• [32] This is pointed out by G. Apollis, L'Emprise Maritime de L'Etat Cotier, Paris 1981, p. 55-56.
• [33] See: S.W. Boggs, Delimitation of seaward areas under national jurisdiction, AJIL, vol. 45, 1951, p. 245.
• [34] This formula is given in the Memorandum ... , p. 441 and next; also with reference to Wiseman and Ovey, M.W. Mouton, The continental shelf [in:] Recueil des Cours de L'Academie de Droit International (RCADI) 1954 (I), p. 348; see literature and the different depth contours given for different shelfs, B.B.L. Auguste, The continental shelf: the practice and policy in the Latin American States with special reference to Chile, Ecuador and Peru , Geneva 1960, p. 29-31.
• [35] It should be mentioned that besides the continental margin which was discovered somewhat later, to some extent the institution of the continental shelf was created by the sedentary fisheries concept with a number of related acts developed in the period 1800-1900. As early as 1910 Portugal prohibited the use of trawl nets in seabed areas with depths smaller than 100 fathoms (182.9 m), and 6 years later Russia substantiated its claim for the islands on the Siberian continental shelf by the fact that they lie on the extension of the continental Siberian platform - a substitute of the natural prolongation principle. This normative thread is strongly accentuated by B.B.L. Auguste: ibid., p. 13-15; J.C. Lupianacci, La Plataforma Continental Como /nstituto del Derecho del Mar, Serie de Publicaciones Especiales No. 61, Universidad de Chile 1984, p. 3; see also R. Bierzanek, High sea from the point of view of international law, Warszawa 1960, p. 87 and next, (in Polish).
• [36] It is worth mentionin~ that as early as 1938 the French section of ILA and the ILA during its 44t session in Copenhagen (1950) stressed that the continental shelf is a continuation of the structure of a continent in geomorphologic sense. J. Andrassy, Epikontinentalnij pojas, Zagreb 1951, p. 55-56; J.L. De Azcarraga, La Plataforma Sub marina y El Derecho lnternacional, Madrid 1952, p. 145 and next.
• [37] This theory, together with a graph and the theories of Earths crust accretion, expansion and contraction, is more widely discussed in: W. Jaroszewski, L. Marks, A. Radomski, Dictionary of dynamic geology, Warszawa 1985, p. 9, 263-264, (in Polish).
• [38] Ibidem, p. 45.
• [39] Graphical description of disintegration of Pangea and comments. K.K. Turekian, Oceans ... , p. 162-167.
• [40] Ibidem, p. 155.
• [41] According to C. Oilier, it seems that the first to describe the phenomenon of adherence of continental coasts was Francis Bacon (1620). A list of other authors and a careful analysis of adherence in context of continental drift and ocean bottom spreading; more in: C. Oilier, Tectonics ... , p. 23 and next, (in Polish).
• [42] More see also Mohorovicic fault in: W. Jaroszewski, L. Marks, A. Radomski, Dictionary ... , p. 156 and 226, (in Polish).
• [43] See also the excellent set of papers from the international IUMC symposium in Ottawa in 1965. Okrainy kontinentov i ostrowyye dugi. Ed. U. Ch. Pu. Translated from English by H.A. Titovoy, Moscow 1970, p. 11 and next, (in Russian).
• [44] More in: W. Jaroszewski, L. Marks, A. Radomski, Dictionary ... , p. 226-227; M. Klimaszewski, Geomorphology, Warszawa 1978, p. 64 and next, (in Polish).
• [45] See graph in: W. Jaroszewski, L. Marks, A. Radomski, Dictionary ... , p. 225, (in Polish).
• [46] Vertical cross-section of Earths crust showing the layers and discontinuities - Conrad, Moho, among others for oceans [in]: ibid., p. 226.
• [47] More under entry [in:] ibid., p. 20.
• [48] More under entry [in:] ibid., p. 189 and 226.
• [49] On these sediments and their layers- more in: M. Ksikiewicz, Dynamic geology, Warszawa 1968, p. 314-315 and 432 and next, (in Polish).
• [50] Complex analysis of the problem in relation to the type of slope in: 0 . K. Leontev Geomorphology of coasts and sea bottom, Moscow 1955, p. 326-327, 332-333, (in Russian).
• [51] More in: W. Jaroszewski, L. Marks, A. Radomski, Dictionary ... , p. 226 ,(in Polish).
• [52] See entry in: ibid., p. 130.
• [53] However, there are exceptions - especially interesting is the case of the Gulf of Bengal, which has a very narrow shelf and continental slope, while because the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers discharge annually over 2 billion tonnes of terragenic sediments into the Gulf the bottom outside these provinces (uprising) has the largest in the world uprising cut by numerous constantly changing troughs. This is why Burma, which has a very wide uprising has been supporting so strongly the principle of natural prolongation with respect to the shelf, stating that this is one of the basic principles of the law of the sea, it is the source of sovereign rights over the shelf and the measure of the reach of juridical shelf, and that the text of this principle should be taken into account when establishing boundaries on the shelf between neighbouring states, lack of which solution is a serious omission of art. 6 of GC IV (1958). More in graphic diagram and comment: G.S. Ananev, 0. K. Leontev, Geomorphology ... , p. 216-217, (in Russian); statement of U Kyaw Min (Burma) [in:] Official records of the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (OR ill UNCLOS), vol. II, New York 1975, p. 155.
• [54] More in: C. Ollier, Tectonics ... , p. 289, (in Polish).
• [55] See§§ 19, 43, 51, 58,85 North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (FRG- Fenmark; FRG -The Netherlands) cited further- Judgement 20 II 1969 [in:] ICJ Reports 1969, p. 22 and next; more in: K. Highet, Whatever became of natural prolongation [in:] Rights to oceanic resources (Ed. D.G. Dallmeyer, L. De Vorsey Jr.), Dordrecht, Boston, London 1989 (ROR), p. 87 and next.
• [56] An identical point of view is presented by O'Connell, who additionally refers to the standpoint of the French Conseil d'Etat, in accordance with which the continental shelf is not a part of the territory of France, concluding that a fortiori the continental shelf is extra-territorial. More in: Argument of prof O'Connell. JCJ Pleadings. Aegean Sea Continental Shelf Case (Greece v. Turkey), p. 139 and 441.
• [57] More in:§ 9 Diss. Op. De Castro .. . , p. 65 and next.
• [58] Argument of prof 0 'Connell ... , p. 441; the functional reach of rights is accentuated by A. Straburzynski, Exclusive ... , p. 146, (in Polish); see F.V.W. Penick, The Legal character of the right to explore and exploit the natural resources of the continental shelf [in:] "San Diego Law Review" (SDLR), vol. 22 1985, p. 765 and next.
• [59] It expresses physical/geographical facts and appears in two meanings. In the wide sense it simply means that the land surface does not end at the seas edge, while in the more narrow specific sense it means that the structure of the continental mass is significantly the same in spite of covering by water. More in: D.P. O'Connell, The international law of the sea, vol. I (ed. LA. Shearer) Oxford 1982, p. 446.
• [60] Text in: K. Kocot, K. Wolfke, Selected documents for learning international law, Wroclaw-Warszawa 1976, p. 262-263, (in Polish); Judge Tanaka commented that they " ... constitute the fundamental concept of the continental shelf... ." Identically Argument of prof O'Connell..., p. 97.
• [61] In its ruling of 20th February 1969, the ITJ several times expressed its opinion that the three first articles reflect the case-law in this respect, and that the most important among them is art. 2, which sanctifies the natural prolongation formula. See § § 22, 63 in Judgement 20 II 1969, p. 23 and next; also in Argument of prof O'Connell... , p. 96-97.
• [62] The most significant fragment of the thesis is " ... namely that the rights of the coastal State in respect of the area of continental shelf that constitutes a natural prolongation of its land territory into and under the sea exist ipso facto and ab initio, by virtue of its sovereignty over the land, and as an extension of it in an exercise of sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring the seabed and exploiting its natural resources ... "§ 19 Judgement 20 II 1969, p. 22.
• [63] See § 43 Judgement 20 II 1969, p. 31.
• [64] See § 42 Judgement 20 II 1969, p. 30.
• [65] See§ 43 Judgement 20 II 1969, p. 31.
• [66] Among the most often used terms, the ITJ mentioned: "near", "close to its shores", "off its coast", "opposite", "in front of the coast", "in the vicinity of', "neighbouring the coast" , "adjacent to", "contiguous" etc. See § 41 Judgement 20 II 1969, p. 30.
• [67] The problem of configuration of the continental shelf was also raised, showing that the so-called Norwegian Trough, lying at a distance of 80-100 km off the Norwegian coast, excludes in physical sense considering it as a contiguous area. More in: § 45 Judgement 20 II 1969, p. 32; differently prof. Francois : contiguity " ... does not preclude submerged areas separated from the coast by a narrow channel of more than 200 metres depth from being considered in certain circumstances as - contiguous to the coast". CIL (Commission on International Law) presents such cases as "equitable modification of the rule - adjacent". The continental shelf doctrine. Thesis by L.F.E. Goldie (typewritten text at the Columbia University in the C.N.Y. 1961), p. 158 and 191 , (note 32).
• [68] More in: § 41 Judgement 20 II 1969, p. 30.
• [69] On this line and its determination in CIL and UNCLOS (1958): T. Gihl, The baseline of the territorial sea, Stockholm 1967, p. 128 and next; A.G. Robles, La Anchura del Mar Territorial, Mexico 1966, p. 55 and next; E. Anderson, The importance of geographical scale in considering offshore boundary problems, MBOR - Maritime Boundaries and Ocean Resources, Ed. G. Blake, London-Sydney 1987, p. 52 and next; J.R.V. Prescott, Straight and archipelagic baselines [in:] ibid., p. 38 and next; V.M. Rangel, Natureza Juridicae Delimitadfo do Mar Territorial, Slro Paulo 1970, p. 128 and next; T. Scovozzi, La Linea di Base Normale LBMT- La Linea di Base del Mare Territoriale, a Cura di Tullio Scovazzi, Milan 1986, p. 35 and next;systems of straight baselines of several dozen states including graphs for int. alia Denmark, Ecuador, Ireland, Island, Thailand, Cambodia, Sweden, Finland, Canada (Vancouver Baffin Islands, Queen Charlotte Islands), The Netherlands, Australia, Cuba, Senegal, France, Guinea, Italy, Norway, Cameroon, Columbia, Madagascar, Japan, Spain, Haiti, Burma, Chile, South Korea, Iran, Bangladesh, Venezuela in: J.R.V. Prescott, The political geography of the oceans, London-Vancouver 1975, pp. 84, 86, 88,91; W.M. Reisman, G.S. Westerman, Straight baselines in international maritime boundary delimitation, London 1992, p. 108 and next; R.D. Hodgson, L.M. Alexander, Towards an objective analysis of special circumstances, LS IURI- Law of the Sea Institute, University of Rhode Island, occasional paper No. 13 1972, p. 23 and next; problem of the baseline in light of UNCLOS (1982) solutions- mainly art. 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 47, 50 see comments The law of the sea. Baselines: an examination of relevant provisions of the United Nations Convention on the law of the sea, New York 1989, p. 1 and next.
• [70] The relevant text of the Proclamation was: " ... the continental shelf may be regarded as an extension of the land-mass of the coastal nation and thus naturally appurtenant to it, since these resources frequently form a seaward extension of a pool or deposit lying within the territory .... " On the same day , besides the Presidential Proclamation No. 2667 a second, No. 2668 Proclamation was published. Full texts and titles in: NDLSD (New directions in the law of the sea, documents), Vol. 1, London 1973, p. 106-109; see M.S. Ball, The law of the sea,federal state relations and the extension of the territorial sea, Athens 1978, p. 8-9; R.P. Anand, Legal regime of the seabed and the developing countries, A.W. Sijthoff- Leyden 1976, p. 32-33.
• [71] See R.B . Krueger, Study of the outer continental shelf lands of the United States, Vol. 1, Los Angeles 1968, p. 13-14; legislative practice of 15 Latin American states with respect to the continental shelf, beginning from the Mexican Declaration (20 X 1945): H.L. Villamil, La Plataforma Continental Y Los Problemas Juridicos del Mar, Madrid 1958, p. 56 and next.
• [72] More in M.W. Mouton, The continental..., RCADI, p. 369 and next: it is thought (e.g. A.G. Robles) that the practice of these states, influenced by Trumans proclamation, first began to shape the new legal structure of the continental shelf in connection with the epicontinental sea/territorial sea. See W.C. Extavour, The exclusive economic zone. A study of the evolution and progressive development of the international law of the sea, Geneva 1979, p. 73-78; see resolutions: IAJC (Inter-American Juridical Committee), IACJ (Inter-American Council of Jurists) [in:] ibid., p.79 and next; F.O. Vicua, The exclusive economic zone. A Latin American perspective, Colorado 1984, p. 12-24; A. G. Robles, La Conferencia de Ginebray LaAnchura del Mar Territorial, Mexico 1959, p. 279 and next.
• [73] M.W. Mouton, The continental..., RCADI, p. 375.
• [74] See J.L. Bustamante Y Rivero, Principios Juridicos que Sustentan la Tesis del Peru Sabre el Mar territorial de 200 Millas, FDP- Fundamentos de la Doctrina de las 200 Millas Peruanas, Lima 1973, p. 137 and next; E.F. Costa, El Nuevo derecho del Mar. El Peru y las 200 Millas, Lima 1979, p. 51 and next.
• [75] M.W. Mouton, The continental..., RCADI, p. 374.
• [76] This motive is also strongly accentuated in the memorial of Tunisia. More in : I.C.J. Pleadings, Continental shelf (Tunisia- Libyan Arab Jamahiriya), vol. 1, p. 155-156.
• [77] G. Scelle, Plateau continental et droit international, RGDIP- "Revue Generale de Droit International Public" 1955 No.5, p. 154; G.I. Tunicin, Teorya mezhdunarodnogo prava, Moscow 1970, p. 109, (in Russian); it seems that while ILC in 1956 and ILA in the years 1950/52/54 showed some caution in this respect, the ITJ in 1969, seeing the increasing practices of states, used the dynamic and functional interpretation of CG IV (1958) reaching such a conclusion. Arguments and literature: see G.F. Kalinkin, Rezhym morskih prostranstv, Moscow 1981, p. 144-148 and 189-190 (in Russian).
• [78] L.F.E. Goldie, The contents of Davy Jones locker- a proposal regime for the seabed and subsoil, RLR - "Rutgers Law Review" vol. 22, 1967, p. 1 and next.
• [79] I.C.J. Pleadings, Continental shelf (Tunisia - Libyan Arab Jamhiriya), vol. I, p. 162.
• [80] Ibid., p. 163; as it was rightly pointed out, this is a problem of the relationship between Earth sciences and international law, and is expressed in the formula " ... the law is concerned with real things such as mineral resources, and cannot evolve hypothetical concepts and seek to make them operational without taking into account the scientific facts that constitute reality". More in: D.P. O'Connell, The international law of the sea, vol. I, p. 440-441.
• [81] "§ 1. The continental shelf of a coastal state contains the seabed and subsoil of undersea areas outside its territorial sea through natural prolongation of its land territory, up to the external edge of the continental margin, or to a distance of 200 Nm from the baseline from which the territorial sea width is measured, if the external edge of the continental margin does not reach that distance" . See text: Doc. A/CONF.62/122- UNCLOS (1982) [in:] OR III UNCLOS, vol. XVII, New York 1984, p. 168.
• [82] See the history of article 76 in: J. Symonides, Geographically disadvantaged states under the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea, Extract from the Recueil de Cours, 1988 (I), p. 343-350. Discussion of the criteria for the external boundary (art.. 76) see also: A. Reynaud, Le Plateau Continental de la France, Paris 1984, p. 12-13; graphic presentation: K.O. Emery, Geological limits of the continental shelf [in:] Ocean development and international law. "The Journal of Marine Affairs", vol. 10, 1981-82, p. 8 (Fig. 5); E.D. Brown, The international law of the sea, vol. I, Aldershot, Brookfield 1994 (Fig. 10.1), p. 141; relations between EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone) and continental shelf- graphic presentation- in: A.S. Laughton, The EEZ, the continental shelf and modern surveying techniques, AUT, p. 72 and 75.