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EN
The authoress considers two Russian social consciousness stereotypes interpreted in the press of 1991-2004 by applying the ideas of mental linguistics. These are the stereotypes of inconvenienced and non-civilized Russia. During the initial period of Russian new press development they were functioning within the contexts attributing them either to the USSR or to Russia. The time and modality of the statements are not fixed. What they imply may be generally stated as follows: 'the inconvenienced and non-civilized USSR should be replaced by well-balanced and civilized Russia'. However, these stereotypes do not disappear with the development of the press. By contrast, they turn into the transparent motives of the discourse which has something in common with the evaluation of Russia in XVII-XIX centuries. The stereotype of being inconvenienced always appears in the texts as a crash or crisis of different social spheres. The meaning of it is expressed in a number of words used both in the terminological and non-terminological way, in the literal sense of a word and metaphorically. The meaning of the word 'crash' is realized in several standard contexts. The context of the 'crash of hopes' represents 'crash' as an unexpected consequence of the situation which was to be successful. The context of 'those who are to be blamed for the crash' manifests itself in two ways depending on who is to blame. An inner or outer 'enemy' might be named. This context gives the mass consciousness formulations describing the situation in the country in a precise way: 'the struggle of bureaucracy against people', 'the West is robbing Russia'. This characteristic quality of the West influences the evaluation of the 'non-civilized' notion. A negative evaluations of the civilized West and positive evaluations of non-civilized Russia are appearing here The West in associated with the power of money and the armed thrusting of democratic values. Non-civilized Russia is said to be the keeper of age-old national traditions. The revival and constant application of mass consciousness stereotypes of 'inconvenienced and non-civilized Russia' contribute to shaping the general discourse modality of instability which reflects the state of the society solving the problems of its future.
EN
At the turn of the 20th century, reflection on the Russian issue dominated the body of illegal journalistic publications of the political parties which at that time were emerging in the Polish territories. All these political parties, apart from the international Socialists, perceived the system exemplified by Russian rule as the main threat to aspirations for Polish independence. Though the National Democrats finally stood for pro-Russian (in fact, pro-French and pro-British) orientation in 1908, they still had a negative opinion of Russia and its role in the history of humanity, as well as of the country itself as a nation and a community. In their journalistic writings, the National Democrats, as well as the Socialists, continued their analysis of permanent conflict between Europe and Asia, Poland and Russia, to be a result of the existence of two different political systems: on the one hand, democracy (Europe, Poland), and on the other, despotism (Russia). Moreover, the Russian nation was considered an artificial creation, ruled by means of terror and merciless bureaucracy. A constant feature of these publications was emphasis on the major differences between all things Russian and Polish. The aim of the National Democrat journalists was to help prevent Russification. Additionally, Russian philosophical and social thought was evaluated from the point of view of Polish interests. National Democrats thus rejected all Russian ideas, especially Pan Slavism, as tools of imperialist Russian politics.
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Content available remote MUTUAL PERCEPTIONS BETWEEN LATVIANS AND LATVIAN POLES
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EN
The problem of mutual perceptions between two groups of inhabitants of Latvia - Latvians (Latgalians) and Latvian Poles - was taken under the examination. The authors stated the question whether to view the process of perceiving as a result of cultural confrontation of values and habits or other reasons. Their aim was to present data in a certain pattern - demonstrating how a group describe itself (auto-presentation) and in what way it see the other. Doing that the readers may follow the data exposing in different ways of perceptions. They drew their account on a vast material from the middle of 19c. till nowadays. It have been based on various sources - the Polish literature created by inhabitants of Latvia, the Polish and Latgalian press in Latvia and thorough ethnological fieldwork carried by both authors. In this way they could compare the views of themselves and the other group from a long period of time. In result they pointed what characteristic features have been changed and what have preserved as the very firm in their mutual interactions. The authors took attention on sociological approach to stereotypes, in which they sought for objective distinctions, and on the other side, the ethnological approach, where focused mostly on the process of mythisation or demonisation of the other. They concluded that the evolution of relations did take a long way from the particular relation between the former landlords and servants to the relation of the contemporary neighbors. The perceived distinctions between auto-representations and depictions of the other expressed the degree of the closeness between two cultures.
EN
A present-day tension in the relations between Russia and Ukraine is largely due to past experiences, centuries long. Conflict between these two nations emerged almost immediately after the Pereyaslav Agreement in 1654, i.e. when Bohdan Khmelnitsky drew Ukraine under the protectorate of Russia. It was the conflict of a colonial character which tended to continue throughhout the times of both the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union. The declaration of Ukraine's independence in 1991 disturbed Russian minds greatly as, for ages, there had been a strong belief among the Russian elite and large masses of the Russian society that Ukraine had always been an integral part of powerful Russian state.The blow to well-established convictions was so heavy that, up till now, The Russian society has not yet recovered from its effects. Josif Brodsky's poem 'On Ukraine's Independence', in which the poet discredits Ukrainian mentality and national culture, illustrates perhaps best the dismay in the Russian society in this respect. In 2008, the editors of a Russian literary and artistic monthly 'Znamya' suggested a positive approach to the problem of cooperation between the two countries on literary grounds. In official statements on literature of their neighbouring countries, ten Russian and Ukrainian writers proved to be in favour of dialogue based on the treatment of both countries on equal grounds and subject-matter objectivism, void of any political bias and negative stereotypes. Such attiude may serve then as ideal model for discussions and negotiations in other areas of mutual relations between Russia and Ukarine.
PL
Społeczeństwa bałkańskie, zróżnicowane politycznie, etnicznie i religijnie, cechuje długotrwałe napięcie wywołane tym, że funkcjonowały one na styku przenikających się nawzajem i skazanych na bliski kontakt kultur. Kobiety Innego były dla mężczyzn wiecznym wyzwaniem, co znajduje odzwierciedlenie w pieśniach epickich. Najbardziej jaskrawo objawia się to na samej granicy różnych wiar. Porwanie cudzej kobiety na granicy uważane było za czyn heroiczny, który przynosił sławę porywaczowi. Nienawiść do przedstawicieli innej wiary objawia się w porwaniu z ich społeczności najpiękniejszych kobiet, ich przywłaszczeniu i nawróceniu na swoją wiarę. Kobiety Innego zdobywano przemocą, podstępem lub za ich zgodą, która potrafiła przezwyciężyć granicę religijnej nietolerancji. Najsilniejsi wojownicy pragnęli posiąść najpiękniejsze kobiety Innego.
EN
Balkan societies, diversified in the political, ethnic and religious sense, are characterized by long-lasting tensions resulting from mutual influences of geographically close cultures. As manifested in epic songs, THE OTHERS' women have always been a challenge to men, which is especially pronounced at the 'meeting places' of different religions. At these borderline terrains, kidnapping someone else's woman was seen as a heroic deed, bringing fame to the kidnapper. The hatred towards representatives of other religions was manifested in kidnapping their most beautiful women, claiming them as one's own possession and converting them to one's own faith. THEIR women were kidnapped by force, tricks or through their own consent, thanks to which religious intolerance could be overcome. The strongest warriors desired to take possession of the most beautiful women of THE OTHERS.
EN
In previous research it was shown that break in the message increased perceived responsibility and moral disapproval of the person implicated by initial information in the story, and enhanced stereotypical thinking. In this article, we describe a field study that concerns the role that the break in the message plays in impression formation. The results show that a break in the message negatively influenced liking of the stimulus person. This effect was partly modified by length of the time that elapsed between the experiment and the assessment of participants' judgments.
EN
The article is devoted to the problem of inter-regional common stereotypes in contemporary Ukrainian state. In the first part the author argues that there are two models of writing about Ukrainian past, none of which is conducive to the consolidation of the Ukrainian nation. As far as the first one refers to the achievements of pre-1917 Ukrainian historiography, the second one relates to the Marxist model of history of Ukraine. On the basis of these patterns of interpretation of history, formed two types of regional consciousness in two opposite regions in Ukraine. It’s about Galicia and the Donbas, two regions, which pretend to be the center of Ukraine and create a proper concept of Ukraine. In subsequent section the author briefly characterizes these projects, highlighting the most significant differences between them. At the same time the author points out that these projects, despite the extreme opposites, do not play a greater role in daily life and do not exclude the possibility of an agreement between members of the communities within they arise. They are activated only in moments of political crisis, and often become the subject of pre-election game. The core part of the article focuses on the characteristics of inter-Ukrainian stereotypes and on the analysis of their causes.
EN
Homosexuality was present throughout history: there were times when it was disapproved and condemned; next it was defined as a disease and later, as a norm-breaking act. Nowadays in a number of countries it is a lifestyle based on free choice. Homosexuality is being surrounded by stereotypes even today, which may be ascribable to the fact that characteristics of homosexual people are hard to detect due to their hidden nature. The main goal of the present study has been to map the opinions of homosexuals of themselves and opinions of heterosexuals of the homosexuals. The opinions are interpreted in the light of the most common stereotypes. Structured interviews were made with 11 heterosexual and 10 homosexual subjects. Results show that the delinquency and disease discourses, apart from a few exceptions, are not part of the stereotypes. As it has been detected, stereotypes have a reality base, in addition, in many cases stereotypes are accepted by the homosexuals themselves.
EN
In the 19th century a Pole-catholic stereotype acquired strong religious and political characteristics. Researchers often underestimate its meaning for Poles under the Austrian rule in Teschen Silesia. They do not analyze it at all or spread the opinion that the influence of the stereotype for social life here was not really important. This article is based on the Polish press in Teschen Silesia and its purpose is to present national and religious groups which drew to the stereotype. The most early the influence of the stereotype was visible in the national and religious context in 1860ties in the daily newspaper 'Gwiazdka Cieszyńska'. From 1880ties the Pole-catholic stereotype was popularized in a radical form. It was used incidentally during the national, religious, language and educational disputes. The author discussed the attitude of particular national and religious groups to the stereotype. She paid attention to the election periods when the stereotype was the most exploited. The relations between evangelicals and catholics, who were often neighbours, were characterized as correct. From the sources used by the author comes a conclusion that using the Pole-catholic stereotype for political and propaganda purposes in Teschen Silesia, especially by the pro-German press, brought negative effects only in a hectic time of election campaigns.
EN
Little is known about the efficacy of various interventions aimed at fighting stereotypes and prejudice towards people with schizophrenia. This study evaluated the efficacy of three interventions: film, meeting a person with schizophrenia, and educational presentation, in reducing stereotypes and prejudice towards people with schizophrenia. Three groups of students were assessed by the Stereotypes and Prejudice Questionnaire before, directly after, and one month after the intervention. A reduction in both stereotypes and prejudice was observed following the educational presentation, and a further decrease in the unfavorable attitudes was observed a month later. Watching the film was found effective in reducing prejudice, however it did not lower stereotypes. Meeting a person suffering from schizophrenia was found to minimize stereotypes but its effects on prejudice were relatively insignificant and temporary. The findings from this study showed that various types of intervention had diverse effects in reducing stereotypes and prejudice.
EN
The cultural heritage of the Polish rural community constitutes a specific type of capital with which the Polish society is entering the integrated Europe. The author of the article draws attention to the possibility of formulating a different than the often expressed extremely critical opinion about that heritage. She also emphasises the significance of the society's positive or negative attitude towards its own tradition. The article's conclusions, which find confirmation in the results of surveys conducted in various parts of Poland in 2003, suggest that a positive attitude towards the rural heritage displayed by the society described by sociologists as a peasant society is more conducive to pro-European attitudes and creation of a new system than criticism, full of complexes vis-a-vis the West, which, at best, may lead to the creation of an imitative capitalism and peripheral democracy.
EN
Research has shown that implicit beliefs about the malleability/stability of human traits can play a vital role in stereotype formation and expression. We predicted that beliefs about stability/malleability of national characteristics may influence stereotypes and attitudes toward different nations. After having experimentally induced the beliefs about stability or malleability of own or other nation's traits, we measured evaluative meaning of the stereotypes and attitudes toward other nations. The participants who were convinced about the malleability of other nations' traits showed more positive stereotypes and attitudes towards other nations than those who believed that national traits are stable. In contrast, participants who were convinced that their own national traits are fixed presented a more positive attitude towards other nations than those who believed that Polish traits may change and evolve.
PL
Autorka studium przedstawia, w jaki sposób pojęcie stereotypu funkcjonuje w nowszych pracach francuskich, głównie językoznawczych, ale też w dziedzinach pokrewnych, gdyż studia dotyczące stereotypu często mają charakter interdyscyplinarny. Lektura francuskojęzycznych książek i rozpraw wskazuje, że dla autorów z tego kręgu językowego głównymi cechami stereotypu są: powtarzalność, odtwarzalność utrwalonych składników, charakter społeczny, uproszczenie i schematyczność. Cechy te eksploatowane są na różny sposób w różnych nurtach językoznawstwa, które pojęciem stereotypu posługują się jako narzędziem analizy czy opisu. Część autorów omawianych prac ujmuje stereotyp w sposób wąski i odnosi do sposobów jego funkcjonowania w języku (składnik znaczenia wyrażeń, czynnik współbudujący relacje wewnątrztekstowe), inni rozumieją go szeroko, w sposób zbliżony do Lippmannowskiego (socjologicznego) ujęcia stereotypu jako czynnika zapewniającego możliwość komunikacji wewnątrz określonej grupy społecznej (widoczne to jest np. w dydaktyce języka francuskiego jako obcego). Choć termin stéréotype nie ma jednego jasno i wyraźnie zdefiniowanego znaczenia, to właśnie jego „nieostrość” sprawia, że jest on używany często i służy do mówienia o różnych zjawiskach natury semantycznej, gramatycznej i pragmatycznej.
EN
The article attempts to show how the notion of stereotype is used in recent French publications, mostly linguistic but also from related fields (research on stereotypes is often interdisciplinary in nature). For French authors, the main characteristics of stereotypes are: recurrence, reconstitution of stable features, social character, simplistic nature and schematicity. For analytical or descriptive purposes, the characteristics are used differently in different linguistic trends, which results in various interpretations of what stereotypes are and how they function. Some authors understand stereotypes in a narrow way and restrict their descriptions to the way the latter function in language (as components of the meaning of linguistic expressions or factors contributing to intratextual relationships); others adopt a broader perspective, closer to Lippmann's (social) understanding of stereotypes as factors facilitating communication within a given social group (this approach is characteristic of the methodology of teaching French as a foreign language). The notion of stereotype does not have one clearly and precisely defined meaning; due to its vague boundaries it is used frequently and resorted to in the analyses of various semantic, grammatical and pragmatic phenomena.
EN
This article describes the results of two studies which examine the new methods of effective suppressing of stereotypic thoughts. In both studies the participants read the characteristics of the two men - one of them is mentioned as being an alcoholic - and the participants' task is to describe the typical day of both men. In the first study they began with the description of non-alcoholic buddy, in the second study, they began with the description of the alcoholic. In both experiments the mental suppression of stereotypical thoughts was manipulated. Next they were examined on recognition test of memory details about those persons. The findings of both studies showed that participants were able to suppress the stereotypical associations.
EN
The expansion of the European Union to include 10 new members, 8 of which were formerly part, or satelittes of the Soviet Union, has been understood as the reuniting of Europe. The integration of the two halves of the continent by peaceful means, which only 15 years ago were facing each other with nuclear weapons, is adjudged to be an epoch making triumph. The fulfillment of the European Union project depends upon successful communication and deliberation between the varied peoples of the continent. However, both within and without popular discourse national stereotypes influence the direction, tenor and resonance of cross-cultural communication. This paper examines how the British press made use of national stereotypes in the months before and after EU expansion on May 1st 2004 and explores their function, saliency and their potential influence for EU integration. The author maintains that the use of particular stereotypes is tied to the political orientation of specific newspapers and are utilised to construct a particular construction of reality. He also contends that an examination of stereotypes within the press can shed light upon the quality of contemporary political debate within our democracy.
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EN
The paper traces both the trajectory of and possible reasons for the survival of the destructive foreign bride stereotype in Serbian literature. The authors focus on two prominent epic narratives, that of Irene Kantakouzene, the wife of Serbian Despot Đurađ Branković and that of Venetian born wife to Đurađ Crnojević, the ruler of Zeta, in different renditions, both folk and authorial. In the (pre)Romantic narratives foreign women are power-hungry lawful wives to Serbian princes and the imminent fall of the dissolved Empire is wrongly attributed to them. The popular (re)construction of the traumatic was unquestioningly transferred into authorial narratives by Romantic Serbian poets: foreign ladies ruined their Serbian royal husbands and, consequently, the people. Born and raised in this tradition, Slobodan Selenić’s Stevan Medaković disregards the patriarchal code and marries his English sweetheart. However, despite her spirited character, both Elisabeth’s actual otherness and her husband’s notions of it will prove an insurmountable obstacle to domestic happiness of the daring young couple. The authors touched upon complex discursive mechanisms which (re-)produce otherness and tried to identify textual chronotopes and elements of cultural anthropology that govern the symbolical characterization of the foreign woman.
EN
The changes taking place in Poland in 1956 contributed to an intensification of anti-Jewish sentiment, kept in check until then by the authorities. Contrary to official internationalist propaganda, negative stereotypes of Jews were rife among the people, including members of the ruling Polish United Workers' Party [Communist party]. They were accused of cronyism, ‘immunity from prosecution', preoccupation with their own interests, a hostile attitude toward Poles and in general acting to the detriment of ‘the working people'. Anti-Semitic outbursts in Lower Silesia (including the unrest which occurred in Walbrzych on 11 September 1956) were a reflexion of the tensions that occurred during that year in Poland and other East European countries. The ruling party was looking for answers to questions about the causes of the anti-Semitic postures. And it usually found the simplest cause in the observation that the Jews themselves were to blame. Such an instrumental approach to the matter may have prevented further unrest but the problem of the Jewish ethnic minority remained. The party found itself wanting in people capable of critical self-appraisal.
EN
The setting of Norbert Gstrein´s novels Das Handwerk des Tötens (2005) and Die Winter im Süden (2008) is Croatia. Through the destinies of the protagonists Gstrein presents the historical background and the implications of the wars in Croatia. At the same time, the novels present this region also as a projection surface of mid-European identities. The protagonists, which can be divided into “local inhabitants” and “strangers”, are in search of their own identities, which are based partly on past and partly on present events. The protagonists try to construct their own identities in contact with and in comparison to the strange identity. The stereotypes and clichés that are thereby created bear witness to the impossibility of an objective perception of the “other”, which can lead to tragic consequences.
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Content available Etnolingwistyka słowiańska – próba bilansu
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PL
W artykule, który ma charakter przeglądu encyklopedycznego, autor omawia problemy ogólne etnolingwistyki słowiańskiej dotyczące jej przedmiotu, metod i zakresu badań. Omawia prace N.I. Tołstoja, V.V. Iwanowa i V. Toporowa oraz etnolingwistyczne badania starożytności słowiańskich. Syntetyzuje badania nad językiem folkloru i problemami etnopoetyki, które doprowadziły do okrycia dwóch wariantów stylowych w tradycyjnej, archaicznej kulturze ludowej (mowa potoczna i poetycka) i istnienia w języku folkloru cech dystynktywnych (melicznych, metrycznych i poetyckich). Akcentuje znaczenie prac z zakresu etnosemantyki (zwłaszcza związane z badaniem stereotypów jako elementów kodu kulturowego), profilowania pojęć w dyskursie i problematyki językowego obrazu świata, w tym zwłaszcza tych, które skupiają się na nazwach wartości. Podkreśla potrzebę badań interkulturowych kluczowych pojęć oraz omawia słowiańskie słowniki etnolingwistyczne.
EN
The article is an encyclopedic survey of the general problems of Slavonic ethnolinguistics and ethnolinguistic research on Slavonic history. A synthesis is proposed of research on the language of folklore and the problems of ethnopoetics. The study underscores the importance of ethnosemantics, especially of research on stereotypes as elements of the cultural code and linguistic worldview. Finally, emphasis is placed on the importance of comparative intercultural research, especially on valuation terms.
EN
Due to the integration and globalization processes currently taking place in the world, the problem of intercultural communication commands interest to an increasing extent today. The perspective of a united Europe and the related requirement of a possibly conflict-free establishment of tolerance-based relationships among people make it necessary for us to learn more about the complex issues of the functioning of cultural systems, including the reasons of the emergence and spread of stereotypes, pre- and postjudices. The author gives a brief survey of cognitive and psychological/social functions of stereotypes and points out that they are in a close relationship with the categorization and conceptualization of extralinguistic pieces of information. Those two processes are based on a natural ambition of cultural communities, as well as social and ethnic groups, the aim of which is to keep and assert their own values, habits, world view, mentality, cultural specificity, and national identity. Among other ways, these aims tend to be achieved by seeing other nations in a xenophobic perspective. The author discusses this issue using the material of Hungarian and Polish proverbs and phraseo­logical units. Stereotypes are an integral part of one's linguistic world view, a special way of seeing the world through a linguistic and cultural prism.
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