Wyniki wyszukiwania - Biblioteka Nauki

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ARCHAICKÁ DNA, PALEOGENETIKA, KULTÚRNA HISTÓRIA. PREČO BY MALI ZAUJÍMAŤ AJ HISTORIKOV A HISTORIČKY

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Bača M.

Historický časopis (Historical Journal)

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2022

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tom 70

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nr 3

487–513

EN

This paper advances understanding of the ancient genomics revolution of the last decade drawing upon the recent archaeological debate concerning key epistemological and methodological issues. On many levels, ancient DNA becomes a concept of general interest. It is evident that historians are also becoming increasingly professionally involved and should therefore engage more in this discussion. As a model for demonstrating the most evident interdisciplinary obstacles which occurs when dealing with the ancient DNA, I chose a popular topic, concerning the 3rd millennium BC migration from the Pontic-Caspian steppes westward. It has currently been backed by archaeogenetics and is supposed to correlate with the spread of Indo-European languages.

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Bārdainā vīra krūzes. 16. gs. Reinzemes keramikas importa atradumi Latvijā

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Ose I.

Makslas Vesture un Teorija

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2021

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tom 25

6-18

EN

The so-called Bartmann jug is one of the typical forms of the German stoneware tableware produced in the pottery workshops situated near the River Rhine, especially in the Cologne region, in the post-medieval period. The characteristic decoration on the neck of these jugs is a large and expressive bearded man’s mask. Bartmann jugs – just like other items of German stoneware – were widely exported to the Baltic Sea region. Some dozens of Bartmann jugs’ fragments have been found in Latvia during archaeological excavations in the second half of the 20th century. Using Latvian finds, this paper briefly describes the transformation of the bearded mask and the development of other decorative applications on these jugs during the 16th century. Foreign parallels have allowed us to determine the approximate date and place of production of the Latvian finds. Current research suggests that fragments of Bartmann jugs were mostly excavated in Riga Old Town. They are stored in the Museum of the History of Riga and Navigation. There are also several archaeological finds from the cultural layers of some castles situated near the Gauja River. Smaller stoneware jug fragments decorated with four bearded masks were excavated in Turaida castle, which belonged to the Archbishop of Riga till the mid-16th century. They are stored in the Turaida Museum Reserve. A large collection of ceramics was found during excavations at Cēsis castle, the residence of the Master of the Livonian Order in the first half of the 16th century. It includes large fragments of four Bartmann jugs with applications of bearded men’s faces and several smaller sherds with friezes and medallions that decorated the body of these stoneware jugs. It is possible that Bartmann jugs have also been in Āraiši castle, situated not far from Cēsis, but only small sherds with probable décor of the body were found there, not the bearded masks. Remains of the Bartmann jugs have also been found in two castles near the lower reaches of the Daugava River – in the excavations of the Ikšķile and Salaspils castle ruins. The archaeological ceramic collections from Cēsis, Āraiši, Ikšķile and Salaspils are stored in the Latvian National History Museum and have yet to be published.

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Archeologia szachów. Przyczynek do badania zmian kulturowych dotyczących pozycji kobiet w średniowieczu, na przykładzie transformacji figury wezyra w królową

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Sołtysiak M.

Homo Ludens

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2014

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nr 1(6)

153-170

EN

The popular set of chess pieces, seemingly fixed and eternal, does not reflect the look and character of the original version of this game. The first sets discovered in excavations did not contain the figures we know, such as the queen, bishops and knights. Instead, we had a vizier, elephants, chariots, and horsemen, and their cultural significance was different from that to which we are now used. It is worth considering how these changes came to pass and how we can show chronologically the transformation of chess symbolism, from a military game into a court one. The best example is the change of the strongest piece on the chessboard – the vizier – into the queen. Judging by archaeological and historical sources, this transformation took place at the turn of the tenth and eleventh centuries. It may have been influenced by a number of new cultural and also political trends, for chess was not only a game and entertainment, and in the stylistic transformations one can hardly see just an aesthetic change. A set of chess was also a prestigious item, and as such constituted an important symbolic element in the material culture. This article is an attempt to summarize the said transformation; moreover, it contributes to the discussion about the reflection of social, political and cultural changes in the Middle Ages in games.

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ANTHROPOMORPHIC ANTLER SCULPTURES IN ABORA I NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT, LAKE LUBANS WETLAND (Antropomorfas raga skulpturas Aboras I vela neolita apmetne Lubana mitraja)

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Loze I.

Makslas Vesture un Teorija

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2011

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tom 14

5-9

EN

The Lake Lubans Wetland in Latvia shows evidence of more than 25 Neolithic settlements. Anthropomorphic antler sculptures from this wetland, as in other parts of the Eastern Baltic and the neighbouring territories, are considered a rare category of finds due to the special conditions of preservation. Two such objects were excavated in 1970 and 1971 at the Late Neolithic site of Abora 1. One is a male figure and the other is asexual. Their age has been calculated based on radiocarbon samples, which were collected during excavations. The anthropomorphic antler figurines correspond to several cultural occupations. The first is characterized by pottery with a smooth surface and the second by all-over-cord impressed and pseudo-textile impressions that are characteristic for Eastern Latvia. The sculptures were discovered in the central, most densely populated part of Abora. The male sculpture (Latvian National History Museum, inv. No. 76: 2262) was found in the north-eastern part of the excavation area, only 1 m north of the disturbed child burial, No. 34. The asexual sculpture (Latvian National History Museum, inv. No. 76: 3833) was uncovered in the central part of the site, in the northern corner of the excavation area F, and only 17 m south of the male sculpture. It came from an oversaturated cultural layer corresponding to the moment of intensive occupation. The anthropomorphic sculptures are made from the widest portion of an elk antler. They show a significant level of technical skill, preparation and proficiency in their manufacture. Both sculptures are three-dimensional, realistically formed figures. The interpretation of the meaning and functions of these Abora figurines may be first approached by examining their integrity as whole or broken objects.

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Gry planszowe Wikingów – rekonstrukcja gier planszowych na przykładzie hnefatafl

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Sołtysiak M.

Homo Ludens

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2013

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nr 1(5)

253-266

EN

Although they are mentioned in sagas and often shown on rune stones, old board games are a big challenge for researchers trying to answer questions about their actual rules. Exhibiting the remains of such a board game in a cabinet at a museum makes it a static object, not a socially functioning cultural component. It is harder to say how a particular game was played in the past (e.g., what elements and strategies were necessary), as well as to determine if the social prestige of that game was similar to, say, that of chess in later times. There is always a dilemma: whether we are able to reconstruct the rules or just to create a potential, not easily verifiable game image which is based on chronologically later principles. The article is devoted in particular to the reconstruction of the most prestigious of board games in Viking Scandinavia – hnefatafl. Boards and iconic presentations of this game are found in the whole area of Scandinavian influence and contacts, from the British Isles to the shores of the Baltic Sea. The game, known probably from the fifth century AD, was very popular in the whole Viking area, and only with the spread of chess did it lose its preeminence as “the game of kings”. However, this was not the end of its career, because, for instance, the first purely European chess set, the so-called Lewis Chessmen, was most likely also a set for playing hnefatafl. The rules of hnefatafl were reconstructed using the game rules from the eighteenth-century diary of Carl Linnaeus. This raises numerous questions concerning the credibility of the rules which are applied when hnefatafl is played today.

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PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY, ARCHAEOLOGY AND SLAV ETHNOGENESIS (Antropologia fizyczna, archeologia, etnogeneza Slowian)

100%

Dulinicz M.

Archeologia Polski

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2008

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tom 53

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nr 1

111-134

EN

Recently published works by the Poznan anthropologists J. Piontek (2006) and R. Dabrowski (2007) have provoked archaeologist to join the debate on the potential of anthropological research for studies on the ethnogenesis of the Slavs. As an archaeologist the author finds it of foremost importance that anthropology 'verifies or falsifies hypotheses and theories formulated by other disciplines (of science)', that is, archaeology included. Since the history of different human groups, including the biological diversity of different populations, can be studied based on a differentiated set of skull morphological traits, one cannot but hope for the opportunity to verify the 'allochthonous' theory of Slav origin. Janusz Piontek has written that 'the archaeologists' visions of the process of Slav ethnogenesis are but one of several propositions competing with ideas either suggested or put forward by representatives of various other disciplines of general anthropology'. Assuming the same concerns physical anthropology, one should ask a number of questions and voice certain doubts formed after a careful perusal of the works of the above mentioned scholars. Results presented by J. Piontek are inspiring, but leave the field open to further questions. Why the small biological distance between people buried in the 13th century in Norwegian Bergen and those laid to rest in graves in Kolobrzeg from the 14th through the 18th century? Why is the 'Cedynia II' population closer to the 'Przeworsk culture' group than to 'Cedynia I' population, which comprises a series of skulls from an adjacent part of the same cemetery? Is it not because the comparison is partly based on the 'Przeworsk culture series' consisting of just nine skulls? Why is the 'Cherniakhov culture' population so similar to the 'Konskie' group, that is, individuals buried in inhumation graves of the 10th and 11th century in central Poland? The two populations are separated not only by thousands of kilometers, but also by six or seven hundred years in time! The reservations formulated above justify a basic question: is the method applied by J. Piontek actually capable of demonstrating real genetic ties between populations or is the effect of this proceeding merely a determination of morphological resemblance without the possibility of explaining the reasons behind it? The method presented by J. Piontek and R. Dabrowski demonstrate a big potential in studies of prehistoric populations. The determinations of both researchers, well grounded in anthropological material, are their important contribution to a discussion of the biological picture of Polish territories in the past. Nonetheless, a prerequisite of this kind of research is a close association between the physical anthropologist and archaeologist. Otherwise, it leads to interesting results, but worse than potentially possible. The hazards are well reflected by R. Dabrowski's study, where no such collaboration can be observed. Moreover, the limitations in the application of the demographic method to investigations of fossil sources, discussed several years back by E. Piasecki (1990), should also become a field of discussion for archaeologists, anthropologists and demography experts alike.

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ARCHEOLÓGIA V SYSTÉME MUZEOLOGICKÝCH DISCIPLÍN

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Gogová S.

Studia Historica Nitriensia

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2013

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tom 17

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nr 2

178 – 186

EN

The archaeological sources are the only and hence key witnesses of the prehistoric period. This exclusivity puts them in a different light in comparison to the sources available for the following periods, where e.g. written sources are available. Most of the museums have the funds of items obtained by archaeological research. Archaeology as a discipline of special museology, like any other discipline presented in the museums, has its specifics. These are reflected, in particular, in the methods of work, in the form of records and documents, care, but also in the possibilities of field research and, ultimately, in the form of their presentation to the public. Their common feature is the protection of our cultural heritage and its legacy for future generations.

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FAKING A COLLISION COURSE: WHEN HISTORY CLASHES WITH POPULISM

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Černín D.

Filozofia (Philosophy)

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2022

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tom 77

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nr 2

97 – 111

EN

Over the last few years, philosophers and other researchers have been focusing on a post-truth era and its symptoms across society and various disciplines. One of the most glaring manifestations is the declining trust in science experts and the rise of populist attacks on professional communities. Historical sciences are encountering a similar onslaught as well. This paper aims to examine one particular clash between a professional discourse regarding a new archaeological discovery with ground breaking potential and a populist reaction to it. The study utilises contemporary theory and philosophy of history and its view of historical inquiry to tackle its main goal – uncover strategies populists use to vilify experts and professionals. Even though historiography has been abused throughout its existence, it is argued that recent attacks are substantially different and potentially more dangerous.

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STUDIES ON PREHISTORIC RELIGION IN POLISH ARCHAEOLOGY

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Baron J.

Sprawozdania Archeologiczne

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2009

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tom 61

419-436

EN

The paper aims on the one hand at presenting a great variety of issues taken up by archaeologists, mostly in recent years, whose areas of interest focus on prehistoric religion, and on the other hand it points out some weak points of proposed interpretations. It presents ways of posting questions and answering them as well as application of historical and ethnographical analogies. Studies on prehistoric religions are furthermore presented according to three discrete groups varying in a degree of interests in religion and contexts of analysed problems.

10

EXAVACTIONS AT TELL EL-RETABA IN 1977, 1978 AND 1981 – PART 1

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Hudáková Ľ. , Hudec J.

Asian and African Studies

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2017

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tom 26

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nr 1

1 – 21

EN

In Part 1 the article brings the main results of the field excavations at Tell el-Retaba undertaken by Hans Goedicke´s team in 1977 and 1978, their comparison to the results of the joint Polish – Slovak mission and some revisions wherever possible. In 1977 the survey denoted the site as a garrison town extensively used in the New Kingdom. In 1978 Petrie´s work was re-examined; the Central Test Pit was excavated and eleven major stratigraphic levels were identified and tested. Some conclusions concern chronology of temenos, rebuilds of temple(s), and its dismantling. The dating of levels in the Central Test Pit is reconsidered in compliance with recent researches. The finds and the season 1981 will be released in Part 2.

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ARCHAEOLOGICAL, HISTORICAL AND ETHNOGRAPHIC SOURCES - INTERDISCIPLINARITY OF STUDIES OF THE PAST

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Palonka R.

Sprawozdania Archeologiczne

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2005

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tom 57

319-354

EN

Reconstructing the past is a complex and complicated pursuit, as well as an extremely creative and interesting process, which involves cooperation between different scientific disciplines. Acknowledging and reconstructing the past, once narrowed down chiefly to archaeology, anthropology and history, is now carried out with at least partial involvement of other disciplines, such as humanities and social sciences, natural sciences, mathematics and technical sciences. Multidisciplinarity and interdisciplinarity of research can produce a broader knowledge of past worlds and cultures, and how these cultures were created and functioned in different environments. Nowadays, it seems obvious that the proper understanding of the past is possible not only due to study of material culture and written sources, but also (among the other things and sciences) analyzing of natural environment, relying on ethnographic analogies, applying anthropological and philosophy theory, and even mathematics and computer models. Interdisciplinarity of studies of the past involves also closer and stronger collaboration between scientists from various disciplines, especially history, anthropology, and archaeology. These three scientific disciplines are probably the most vitally interested in the process of reconstructing the human culture in different ways.

12

THE CEMETERY OF TARNOBRZEG LUSATIAN CULTURE IN KORYTNICA 5/3, IN THE SOUTHEAST OF POLAND

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Pobocha P.

Studia Historica Nitriensia

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2016

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tom 20

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nr 2

505 – 526

EN

This thesis is an analysis of source materials related to the Tarnobrzeg Lusatian Culture found in the cemetery in Korytnica 5/3 within the municipality of Sobków, in the county of Jędrzejów, in the świętokrzyskie in southeast Poland. This study has been carried out on the artefacts discovered in 2008 and 2009 as well as during the salvage excavation in 2010.

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DOROTHY MACKAY: A FORGOTTEN FEMALE PIONEER IN ARCHAEOLOGY

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Kaczanowicz M.

Muzeológia a kultúrne dedičstvo

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2023

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tom 11

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nr 3

71 – 80

EN

In 2022, the author of this paper came across four letters regarding epigraphic documentation of some elite tombs in the Theban necropolis, Egypt, written by Dorothy Mackay and addressed to Alan H. Gardiner, at the archive of the Griffith Institute, University of Oxford. The author of the letters was the wife of Ernest Mackay (1880–1943), a British archaeologist best known for his later work on the Indus Valley Civilisation, who was excavating on the Theban west bank between 1913 and 1916. However, as further investigation revealed, Dorothy, until recently an obscure figure, was an accomplished scholar in her own right, who worked together with her husband, acted as a curator of two museums, and published extensively in times when it was far from easy for women to obtain an education, let alone conduct research. Despite that, the only recent sources discussing Dorothy and her scholarly accomplishments lack some vital details on her life. The aim of this contribution is to provide some further information and context on Dorothy Mackay and her research in the first half of the twentieth century.

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NEOLITHIC SMALL CLAY PLASTIC ART IN NORTHERN KURZEME. ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES (Ziemelkurzemes neolita mala sikplastika. Antropomorfas figuras)

100%

Loze I.

Materiali Latvijas makslas vesturei

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2003

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tom 3

9-18

EN

The first patterns of Neolithic small plastic art were found at the excavations of Purciems C site, located near the ancient littoral of the Litorina Sea. The best example - a 4, 4 cm long figurine - has a summarily formed body with a characteristic modeling of the shoulders in place of the arms and a flat base in place of legs. The oval and wide face of the figurine has a nose formed in relief, but its eyes, eyebrows and mouth are marked by incisions. Some new patterns of the Neolithic anthropomorphic plastic art were excavated in the wetland of the Lake Lubans between 1964 and 1989. The best pattern - the head of a broken figurine - was found at the Nainiekste settlement. Its oval face with more elaborate details was modeled in a similar way. During the latest investigations at the Purciems F and especially at the newfound Gipka A and Gipka B settlements, located on the ancient bank of the Litorina Sea, archaeologists discovered 15 broken clay figurines. The new material allowed to classify the anthropomorphic small clay plastic patterns into several groups: upward-looking anthropomorphic clay figurines with a flat base in place of legs, anthropomorphic clay figurine with a scarf-like head-dress (Gipka type), anthropomorphic figurines with legs, the bead-shaped anthropomorphic representation.

15

EXCAVATIONS AT TELL EL-RETABA IN 1977, 1978 AND 1981 – PART 2

100%

Hudáková Ľ. , Hudec J.

Asian and African Studies

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2017

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tom 26

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nr 2

163 – 184

EN

In Part 2 the article brings the finds from the season 1978. The fragment of a stela found in level IV of the Central Test Pit resembles Ramesside ‘Horbeit stelae’; it was already re-used, similar to some other Ramesside stone objects at Tell el-Retaba, in early Third Intermediate Period. An excursus focuses on other inscribed and decorated stone fragments from the tell. In 1981, parts of Petrie’s Wall 2 and Wall 3 were unearthed, measured and described, among other structures in the 125 meters long eastern profile of the pipeline trench. The trench was dug out by the Egyptian authorities in the centre of the tell, cutting it into two parts in N-S direction. Petrie’s Walls as well as some other loci documented in the profile are re-evaluated; the same concerns the burials discovered in the trench northwards of the tell. Date of yet another burials uncovered in the central southern part of the tell is re-considered with the conclusion that, as other child (jar) burials discovered at Tell el-Retaba, they are part of cemeteries at defence walls (in or outside the fortress), used during the New Kingdom from the late 18th/early 19th Dynasty onwards.

16

SLAV ETHNOGENESIS: FROM MYTHS TO FACTS (Etnogeneza Slowian: od mitów ku faktom)

88%

Piontek J.

Archeologia Polski

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2009

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tom 54

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nr 1

121-147

EN

The text addresses a critical analysis of J. Piontek's and R. Dabrowski's anthropological research on the ethnogenesis of the Slavs published by M. Dulinicz. The discussion would have been more interesting had Dulinicz confronted the determinations of physical anthropology with those of archaeology, Dulinicz's text is almost entirely devoted to a reinterpretation of results presented in the said anthropological studies, the author assuming that his 'own idea' of methods of investigating human biological variability will demonstrate the flaws of the presented approaches and support a 'proper' interpretation of the results of anthropological research. He failed to achieve this objective. Dulinicz acquainted himself with a number of works by J. Piontek and R. Dabrowski, developing in effect the conviction that he has understood in full the determinations of anthropologists in the field of interest to him. It is a wonder why certain archaeologists do not reach for studies referring to Slav ethnogenesis prepared within the framework of different natural science research programs. In Piontek and Dabrowski considerations, they concluded that no anthropological research to date has confirmed the theories of archaeologists about a discontinuity in the settlement of regions in the basins of the Oder and Vistula. This conclusion has not changed with the accretion of new source data. In fact, new analyses have increasingly supported the earlier findings. The anthropological research discussed by Dulinicz in his polemic concerned paleodemographic and morphological issues.In reference to these paleodemographic studies, Dulinicz rejected the arguments presented in J. Piontek's works as irrelevant, stating that they do not refute in any way whatsoever the theory about Slav origins popularized in Poland by a group of archaeologists. The backbone of the theory referred to nowadays as the 'allochthonous idea', has never been proved satisfactorily. Every hypothesis is grounded in a core statement, in this case a theory of demographic transformation. In the case of the allochthonous theory, the core statement admits the possibility of a sudden population growth among the Slavs. Unfortunately, no convincing data on the biological possibility of 'violent expansion' of the Slav population has appeared to date. With regard to morphological research, Dulinicz criticized solely the results of biological distance studies, subjecting the matrices of these distances to a new interpretation. Meanwhile, in the works in question, methods evaluating biological distance (Mahalanobis D2 distance and the Euclidean square distance) were applied in combination with multidimensional scaling of the matrices of biological distance and the principal component analysis (PCA), which seem to have escaped Dulinicz's attention entirely. Concluding, the author of the polemic used in his deliberations only a small part of the results presented by J. Piontek and R. Dabrowski.

17

NÁVRH KONCEPTUÁLNEJ DÁTOVEJ ŠTRUKTÚRY PRE TVORBU ARCHEOLOGICKÉHO PREDIKČNÉHO MODELU

88%

Blažová E. , Faixová-Chalachanová J. , Bartík M.

Študijné zvesti

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2010

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nr 48

5 - 19

EN

The article deals with the history of digitalization of the archive of the Institute of Archaeology of the Slovak Academy of Sciences in Nitra, with the processing of old data stocks in analogue form, and with the entry of GIS systems into this process. The article describes the system of building information levels, database entries and digitalization. It also seeks the possibility of creating a web-based archaeological information environment once the system has been completed.

18

TEÓRIA MÉMOV A MOŽNOSTI JEJ APLIKÁCIE V ARCHEOLÓGII

88%

Ďuďáková Z.

Studia Historica Nitriensia

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2013

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tom 17

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nr 1

23 – 31

EN

Cultural and biological evolutions are complex processes influenced by many internal and external factors. Both of them share some basic characteristics and key aspects like variation, inheritability and selection. Many researchers are investigating the possibility of the cultural evolution analysis, using the same methods and principles as for analysing the evolution of living organisms.

19

Rekonstrukční mapy polních systémů

88%

Klir T.

Historická geografie (Historical Geography)

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2007

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tom 34

261-295

EN

The purpose of the submitted paper was to contribute to better understanding of historical agricultural strategies on a specific example of villages established during the late-medieval colonisation. Based on an analysis of plans of agricultural land surrounding villages and on written materials from the 16th-18th centuries, the main features of field systems in selected villages were described and explained, including the extent of their stability and their ability to cope with harvest variances. Lots of attention was paid to the study of relations between the settlement form and the field system. On the other hand, the effort to reconstruct the formal arrangement of agricultural land around villages remained unnoticed since it reflected the property and legal relations and the economical and ecological situation at that time etc, which means changeable and oftentimes short-term factors. All the searched locations showed close relations between the settlement form and the method of using agricultural areas. This enabled us to word model assumptions about agricultural strategies and economic principles of villages in extremely bad nature conditions. As far as villages situated on infertile and hardly differentiated sandy soils are concerned, it was possible to document agricultural production based on undemanding 'three-sectional' field systems and in some areas also on 'alternate field systems'. Varied pressure on agricultural production was also reflected by the arrangement of agricultural land around villages whose main structure was maintained by a more stable settlement form. There was only one village where we could document a clear division of agricultural land into a portion with intensive agricultural production and a portion with extensive production; such situation resulted from the fact that the land owned by the village included also high quality soil. This division increased the efficiency of agricultural work significantly since it focused on suitable areas only. The risk of yield variations was fairly low. The development of the above described field systems during the early Middle Ages can be studied on the example of the village of Lhota na Kri. However, an analysis of this medieval village, which does not exist any more, will be dealt with in another essay.

20

Społeczne wytwarzanie przeszłości. Archeologia materii reaktywowanej

88%

Zalewska A.

Sensus Historiae. Studia interdyscyplinarne

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2011

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nr 1(2)

63-80

EN

The following article will attempt to demonstrate the validity of the claim that any study of “the past” (which in the perspective adopted herein is actually seen as a study of the materiality of the present) ought to incorporate the drive towards exhibiting the trajectory of the material and conceptual permeation of the “past” into the present. The material carriers of meanings offer some rather unique help in our efforts to “absorb the proposals of the world”. The strategy adopted here has been attributed the working designation of archaeology of “second degree”, archaeology of reactivated matter, or anthropology of the secondary (or secondary assignation of meanings (matter)), which allows us to demonstrate the following: it is because of our intention (and due to our cognitive aptitude, including the technological capacity to express the “materialisation of persistence” and the “material memory”), that our historical heritage is being organized in an act of preparation for this very intention. It is due to our intention that we can observe the “true objectification” of a certain group of items (once the produced item’s existence is permanently secured, its involvement never ceases and it is bound to be revoked, remaining in the scope of the human world) and the exclusion of others. Theoretically, archaeology can contribute to a better understanding of our (contemporary) intentions and relations — both interpersonal, and those with the “past” as well as the surrounding “matter”. The governing assumption in this context is that the all-encompassing material carriers of characteristics, meanings, sense and information do not belong to the past, but rather to the present.