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1

Influence of basic 3D printing parameters on mechanical properties of PLA biopolymer prints by FDM method

Stelmachowicz Adrian, Mazur Jacek, Cwalina Paweł, Obidziński Sławomir, Boszorádová Lucia

Agricultural Engineering

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2026

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Vol. 30, No. 1

141--161

EN

With the rapid advancement of 3D printing technology and increasing demands for production efficiency, it is essential to verify the impact of key process parameters on the mechanical properties of printed parts. Optimizing print speed, temperature, and path orientation is critical to ensuring the repeatability and durability of manufactured components, especially in engineering and industrial applications. Poly-actide (PLA) is a plant-based polymer that is one of the most popular materials used in 3D printing with FDM/FFF technology. The article presents the results of a study on the mechanical properties, specifically tensile strength and bending strength, of specimens manufactured using a Creality K2 Plus 3D printer with PLA. The tests were conducted in accordance with ISO 527-2 for tensile testing and ISO 178 for bending testing on a Stable Micro Systems TA-XT plus Texture Analyser. The filament for printing was extruded on an Artme3D MK3S filament extruder to a diameter of 1.75 mm. The specimens were printed in combinations involving changes in the three crucial printing parameters: temperature (190°C, 200°C, 210°C), printing speed (100 mm‧s-1, 150 mm‧s-1, 200 mm‧s-1) and the layer angle (15°, 30°, 45°, 90°). The study showed that both tensile strength and bending strength are most affected by temperature. Moreover, the optimal printing parameters for the specimens were determined for tensile strength (T=210°C, V=150 mm‧s-1, R=0°) and bending strength (T=200°C, V=200 mm‧s-1, R=0°).

PL

Wraz z dynamicznym rozwojem technologii druku 3D oraz rosnącymi wymaganiami dotyczącymi efektywności produkcji konieczna jest weryfikacja wpływu kluczowych parametrów procesu na właściwości mechaniczne drukowanych elementów. Optymalizacja prędkości druku, temperatury oraz orientacji ścieżki jest niezbędna do zapewnienia powtarzalności i trwałości wytwarzanych komponentów, szczególnie w zastosowaniach inżynierskich i przemysłowych. Polilaktyd (PLA) jest polimerem pochodzenia roślinnego i jednym z najpopularniejszych materiałów stosowanych w druku 3D w technologii FDM/FFF. W artykule przedstawiono wyniki badań właściwości mechanicznych, w szczególności wytrzymałości na rozciąganie i wytrzymałości na zginanie, próbek wykonanych z PLA przy użyciu drukarki 3D Creality K2 Plus. Badania przeprowadzono zgodnie z normą ISO 527-2 dla próby rozciągania oraz normą ISO 178 dla próby zginania, z wykorzystaniem analizatora tekstury Stable Micro Systems TA-XT plus. Filament do druku wytłoczono za pomocą wytłaczarki filamentu Artme3D MK3S do średnicy 1,75 mm. Próbki drukowano w kombinacjach obejmujących zmiany trzech kluczowych parametrów druku: temperatury (190°C, 200°C, 210°C), prędkości druku (100 mm‧s-1, 150 mm‧s-1, 200 mm‧s-1) oraz kąta ułożenia warstw (15°, 30°, 45°, 90°). Badania wykazały, że zarówno wytrzymałość na rozciąganie, jak i wytrzymałość na zginanie są w największym stopniu zależne od temperatury. Ponadto określono optymalne parametry druku próbek dla wytrzymałości na rozciąganie (T = 210°C, V = 150 mm‧s-1, R = 0°) oraz wytrzymałości na zginanie (T = 200°C, V = 200 mm‧s-1, R = 0°).

2

Multi-objective prediction and optimization of 3D-printed polymer properties using neural networks and desirability functions

Shakir Layth Fadhil, Ismael Hameed Sarhan, Abdullah Mostafa Adel, Huayier Abdullah Faraj, Ghazi Safaa Kadhim

Advances in Science and Technology. Research Journal

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2026

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Vol. 20, no. 1

288--300

EN

The industry uses Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) in the manufacture of the final products through the additive manufacturing method (AM). Due to this approach, one can construct a prototype and other components with complicated geometry, which not only translates into the saving of expensive dollars but also makes the project more flexible. Printing and material type, as well as other processing settings, affect the nature of parts, in terms of mechanics as well as other aspects. This paper attempts to develop a model to predict the mechanical capabilities and surface quality of FDM-printed ABS objects based on Artificial Neural Networks. Taguchi design of experiments is applied with an L27 orthogonal array coupled with a two-layer Neural Network (NN) with 15 neurons. The impact of the characteristics of the layer height, the orientation angle, and the nozzle temperature on the strength and finish of parts was investigated by means of the analysis of variance (ANOVA). Layer thickness seemed to be the major variable in the analysis because it was identified to create over 43.67% variation in ultimate tensile strength and 46.38% variation in surface roughness. The predicted results by the model were just a little different compared with the actual results. The highest percent error in the tensile strength and the surface roughness are 2.346 and 1.876, respectively, which arises when comparing the experimental and predicted values as calculated using the ANN model. With such a model, different parameters selected are able to achieve the requirements of a particular application.

3

Experimental investigation and prediction of the tensile strength and surface roughness of fused deposition modeling-printed thermoplastic polyurethane parts using response surface methodology and artificial neural network models

Saeed Warqaa Majid, Huayier Abdullah Faraj, Shabeeb Alaa Hassan

Advances in Science and Technology. Research Journal

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2026

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Vol. 20, no. 8

269--281

EN

The versatility across engineering applications, low production costs, and environmental sustainability position 3D printing as one of the most promising manufacturing technologies. Process parameters directly govern the quality of printed parts, making their optimization essential for performance enhancement. This paper explores how tensile strength and surface roughness of FDM-printed parts of thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) can be optimized and predicted using Taguchi, RSM and ANN Models. Taguchi L27 orthogonal array design and ANOVA were used to test the effects of layer thickness (0.16, 0.2, 0.24 mm), infill density (40,60,80%), and infill pattern (Gyroid, Grid, Line) to achieve higher-the-better UTS and lower-the-better (Ra) per the ASTM D638 Type IV test. Optimal settings (LT 0.24 mm, ID 80%, IP Line) had a maximum UTS of 38.463 MPa, (LT 0.20 mm, ID 60, IP Grid) had a minimum RA of 1.88 µm, the infill pattern had the greatest effect on UTS (38.1 percent, p=0.043), and layer thickness had the greatest effect on RA (47.4 percent, p=0.010). The prediction was done using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model. ANN performed better than RSM with maximum prediction errors of 6.90 (UTS) and 6.49 (Ra) compared to the higher values of RSM, lower values of MSE, and an outstanding correlation coefficient of R = 0.99997. The validation of ANN on the experimental data indicated the high accuracy (MAE 0.011 UTS, 0.032 Ra) was achieved with the training of Levenberg-Marquardt (70-15-15 split), and the standard errors were low among all the runs. This combination of Taguchi design, RSM, ANOVA, and interpretable ANN modeling is a powerful scheme of optimization of the parameters of the FDM process when printing TPU, which improves the mechanical performance and the surface quality of the material in flexible engineering tasks.

4

Comparison of the tensile strength of FDM printed specimens with different infill densities made of PA12 and PA12+CF15

Miazio Łukasz

Technical Sciences / University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn

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2025

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Vol. 28

145--152

EN

The research presented in this article represents a further stage in studies on the strength of components printed using 3D printing technology, specifically FDM (Fused Deposition Modelling). The article presents the results of tensile strength tests on samples printed from PA12 and PA12+CF15 materials, while previous studies by the author focused on PLA material. Basic material data provided by manufacturers and distributors of materials used in the FDM method, such as tensile strength and Young’s modulus, refer to the most favourable model orientation during printing. However, in additive technologies, particularly FDM, the constructed object shows significant layering differences (in the Z direction). The direction of material deposition (in the XY plane) is also crucial. Additionally, the strength is influenced by the degree and type of infill within the model and the temperature during printing. For these reasons, it is essential to understand the relationship between technological parameters and the resulting strength for specific materials. This study aimed to determine the tensile strength of samples printed with varying infill percentages. In the context of the new material, PA12+CF15, it is essential to understand how the addition of carbon fibers affects the mechanical properties of prints compared to traditional materials, such as PA12 and PLA. Carbon fibers can significantly increase the strength and stiffness of the composite, potentially leading to applications in producing parts with high strength requirements. Therefore, studying the strength of materials concerning various printing parameters is crucial for developing the potential of FDM technology and its industrial applications. PA12+CF15 is composed of polyamide 12 (PA12), a thermoplastic material with good chemical resistance, abrasion resistance, and flexibility. The addition of 15% carbon fibers (CF15) reinforces the composite structure, leading to increased stiffness, mechanical strength, and deformation resistance. The study shows that this addition enhances PA12’s strength by approximately 13%, also facilitating printing by reducing shrinkage.

5

Analysis of strength properties of selected materials for 3D printing

Krawulski Patryk, Bazychowska Sylwia, Kończewicz Włodzimierz, Adamkiewicz Bartosz

Scientific Journal of Gdynia Maritime University

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2025

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nr 136

7--19

EN

3D printing is now becoming an integral part of technological development worldwide. The growing popularity of additive techniques means that more and more money is being spent on them, and their applications are gradually extending into more areas of life. Incremental manufacturing makes it possible to produce both prototypes and finished spare parts, the properties of which are comparable, and often almost identical, to components currently in use. With this technology, it is possible to create components with complex geometries without having to invest in costly, advanced mass production. 3D printing technologies make it possible to construct three-dimensional objects based on successive layers of material. Testing of the additive-printed samples was carried out using an orthogonal plan, in which factors are selected so that each is different from the others. This means that during the experiments, the influence of the individual parameters could be assessed independently, without interference from other variables. As part of the study, specimens were prepared and subjected to a static tensile test. The test models were printed with five different infill densities: 20; 40; 60; 80; and 100. After testing, the results obtained were collated in the form of graphs illustrating, among other things, the tensile strength of the Young’s modulus values and the percentage strain. These data were then analysed and described in detail for all selected materials. The highest tensile strength value was obtained for the PET-G material with 50.09 MPa at 100% infill. The lowest tensile strength value was achieved by the ASA material – 23.43 MPa at 20% infill. The highest Young’s Modulus value was achieved by the ASA material – 1924 MPa at 100% infill. The lowest value of the Young’s Modulus was obtained for the PET-G material – 934 MPa at 20% infill. The material and the infill density have no significant effect on the deformation value. The results showed that changing the infill density has an effect on the strength properties.

6

Analiza naprężeń w słupie OWS-7 obudowy wykopu firmy Kopras w zależności od położenia rozpory oraz od rozkładu parcia gruntu działającego na obudowę

Buczkowski Wiesław, Kopras Marek, Fleming Wojciech

Przegląd Budowlany

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2025

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R. 96, nr 3

77--84

PL

Artykuł prezentuje kompleksową analizę naprężeń w słupach systemowej obudowy słupowej, stosowanych do zabezpieczania głębokich wykopów. W badaniu uwzględniono wpływ różnych schematów rozkładu parcia gruntu, takich jak równomierny, hydrostatyczny oraz modele zaproponowane przez Terzaghiego, Klennera, Lehmanna i Siemińską-Lewandowską. Dodatkowo przeanalizowano znaczenie wysokości położenia rozpory rolkowej względem słupa i jej wpływ na generowane naprężenia. Badania, przeprowadzone przy zastosowaniu metody różnic skończonych przy wykorzystaniu funkcjonału energii sprężystej pozwoliły na precyzyjną ocenę rozkładu momentów zginających w zależności od przyjętych założeń obciążeniowych. Wyniki wskazują, że schemat Terzaghiego generuje największe momenty zginające, przewyższając wartości wynikające z innych modeli, takich jak hydrostatyczny czy równomierny. Szczegółowa metodyka wraz z analizą wyników została zamieszczona w artykule. Artykuł podkreśla praktyczne znaczenie optymalnego doboru schematów obciążeń i konfiguracji konstrukcji w kontekście zwiększenia bezpieczeństwa oraz efektywności kosztowej obudów systemowych. Wyniki badania stanowią istotny krok w kierunku dalszej optymalizacji konstrukcji zabezpieczających wykopy i ich adaptacji do zmiennych warunków gruntowych.

EN

The article presents a comprehensive analysis of stresses in posts of a system shoring structure used for securing deep excavations. The study considers the impact of various soil pressure distribution schemes, such as uniform, hydrostatic, and models proposed by Terzaghi, Klenner, Lehmann, and Siemińska-Lewandowska. Additionally, the significance of the vertical position of the roller brace relative to the post and its effect on the generated stresses is analyzed. The research, conducted using the finite difference method and applying the elastic energy functional, enabled a precise evaluation of bending moment distribution based on the adopted load assumptions. The results indicate that Terzaghi’s scheme generates the highest bending moments, surpassing the values derived from other models, such as hydrostatic or uniform. Detailed methodology and analysis of the results are included in the article. The article emphasizes the practical importance of optimizing load distribution schemes and structural configurations to enhance safety and cost-efficiency in system shoring structures. The findings represent a significant step toward further optimization of excavation shoring designs and their adaptation to varying soil conditions.

7

Drop Tower Charpy Impact Tests of Additively Manufactured ABS Samples with Various Printing Orientations

Dziewit Piotr

Problemy Mechatroniki : uzbrojenie, lotnictwo, inżynieria bezpieczeństwa

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2025

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Vol. 16, Nr 4 (62)

87--102

EN

Due to its rapid development, Additive Manufacturing (AM) is a technology that could potentially replace conventional production methods. One of the most common AM techniques is Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM), which allows building layer-by-layer prototypes created in computer-aided design (CAD). Due to the layered structure of the manufactured components, it is important to assess the impact of print orientation on the properties of the finished product. Although most of the mechanical properties under quasi-static and fatigue conditions have already been described, the dynamic tests have not yet been thoroughly presented. For instance, it was identified that the raster angle significantly influences the strength properties of the tested specimens, as well as their fatigue resistance. Hence, it can be assumed that it also affects the impact response of additively manufactured specimens. This paper focuses on the mechanical response of ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) samples printed in different orientations and raster angles, tested under impact conditions using the Charpy method according to ISO 179-2, with two impact directions (flatwise and edgewise). The tests were performed on unnotched samples manufactured in vertical and horizontal orientations with raster angles of 0°/-90°, 15°/-75°, 30°/-60°, and 45°/-45°. It has been observed that both printing parameters significantly affect the mechanical behaviour of the tested samples, with a difference in impact toughness of up to 50%.

PL

Ze względu na szybki rozwój, wytwarzanie przyrostowe (AM) jest technologią, która potencjalnie może zastąpić konwencjonalne metody produkcji. Jedną z najpopularniejszych technik AM jest Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM), która pozwala na budowanie warstwa po warstwie prototypów zamodelowanych w programach do projektowania wspomaganego komputerowo (CAD). Ze względu na warstwową strukturę wytwarzanych elementów ważne jest, aby ocenić wpływ orientacji druku na właściwości gotowego produktu. Chociaż większość wyników badań mechanicznych w warunkach quasi-statycznych i zmęczeniowych została już opisana, testy dynamiczne nie zostały jeszcze dokładnie przedstawione. Stwierdzono, że kąt wypełnienia ma znaczący wpływ na właściwości wytrzymałościowe badanych próbek, a także na ich odporność na zmęczenie. Można zatem założyć, że wpływa on również na reakcję dynamiczną próbek wytworzonych metodą addytywną. Niniejszy artykuł koncentruje się na reakcji mechanicznej próbek ABS (akrylonitryl-butadien-styren) drukowanych w różnych orientacjach i z różnymi kątach wypełnienia. Próbki materiałowe były badane w warunkach dynamicznych metodą Charpy'ego za pomocą młota spadowego zgodnie z normą ISO 179-2, w dwóch kierunkach uderzenia (płaskim i krawędziowym). Testy przeprowadzono na próbkach bez karbu, wytworzonych w orientacji pionowej i poziomej, przy kątach wypełnienia 0°/-90°, 15°/-75°, 30°/-60° i 45°/-45° Zaobserwowano, że oba parametry drukowania mają znaczący wpływ na zachowanie mechaniczne badanych próbek, przy czym różnica w odporności na uderzenia wynosiła nawet 50%.

8

Impact of STL file format on the cylindricity deviation of models manufactured using FDM technology

Zmarzły Paweł, Szczygieł Paweł, Bujarska Anna

Metrology and Measurement Systems

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2025

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Vol. 32, nr 3

art. no. 4, 1--15

EN

Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) is a category of MEX additive manufacturing processes that has gained considerable popularity. Its ability to produce cylindrical machine parts makes it a particularly useful technology in this field. In order to ascertain the accuracy of the cylindrical component, it is necessary to carry out a measurement and evaluation of the cylindricity deviation. This measurement can identify defects that are the consequence of the 3D printing process, thus providing valuable insight into the quality of the printed object. Nevertheless, in numerous studies, the impact of the manner in which STL digital files are saved on the formation of errors in the shape of cylindrical elements is overlooked. This article presents studies aimed at determining the influence of STL recording of a virtual model on the accuracy of the printout, as determined by the cylindricity deviation. The measurements were conducted using a Prismo Navigator coordinate measuring machine produced by Zeiss. It has been demonstrated that the manner in which a digital file is saved has an effect on the characteristics of irregularities in cylindrical surfaces, which, in turn, affects the value of cylindricity deviation. The findings of the study, as detailed in the article, will provide a framework for the selection of parameters for the recording of STL files, with the objective of obtaining cylindrical surfaces of an acceptable quality, 𝑖.𝑒. the lowest value of cylindricity deviation.

9

Numerical analysis and experimental studies three-layer slabs of the Hoff

Sadowska-Buraczewska Barbara, Głodkowska Wiesława

Materiały Budowlane

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2025

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nr 7

1--9

EN

The paper concerns three-layer slabs of the Hoff in terms of their use as independent slab floor elements. Three variants of the panels were analyzed, differing in the material from which the cladding and the core of the board were made. The result of the analysis was to determine the relationship between the load of the three-layer slab and its vertical displacements (deflections). The practical possibility of using the variational finite difference approach (MRS) and the finite element method (FEM) for the calculation of plate three-layer elements of the Hoff and homogeneous, isotropic plates has been demonstrated. For three variants of the plate, computer simulations were carried out using these methods and experimental verification of one of the variants was carried out. The article presents only a fragment of extensive experimental and analytical research.

PL

W artykule zaprezentowano płyty trójwarstwowe Hoffa w aspekcie zastosowania ich jako samodzielnych płytowych elementów stropowych. Przeanalizowano trzy warianty płyt z różnymi okładzinami i rdzeniem. Wynikiem analiz było określenie zależności pomiędzy wielkością obciążenia płyty trójwarstwowej a jej przemieszczeniami pionowymi (ugięciami). Wykazano praktyczną możliwość stosowania metody wariacyjnego ujęcia różnic skończonych (MRS) i metody elementów skończonych (MES) do obliczania płytowych elementów trójwarstwowych Hoffa oraz izotropowych płyt jednorodnych. Przeprowadzono symulacje komputerowe tymi metodami trzech wariantów płyty oraz dokonano weryfikacji doświadczalnej jednego z wariantów. W artykule przedstawiono tylko fragment szerokich badań doświadczalnych i analitycznych.

10

Improving the Finished Product’s Quality and Mechanical Properties in Manufacturing of Prototyping Using Fused Deposition Modelling

Suthar Janak, Surange Vinod G., Teli Shivagond

Management and Production Engineering Review

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2025

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Vol. 16, No. 1

[nr art. 14], s. 1--8

EN

In today’s expanding market, customers prefer components with excellent mechanical properties and smooth surfaces. Additive manufacturing (AM) has been traditionally limited in full-scale manufacturing due to its mechanical strength and surface roughness. As a result, AM has been primarily utilized for prototyping and job shop production. Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) involves the extrusion of wax or plastic materials through nozzles and layering them on a bed or platform to achieve the desired cross-sectional shape. There is a growing demand in industries for high-quality parts produced at a low cost and in a shorter time frame. It becomes crucial to optimize the machine’s process parameters. However, it can be challenging to consistently achieve optimal values, even for a skilled operator. Understanding the FDM system parameters that affect the quality and mechanical properties of the final product is essential. Consequently, this study focuses on optimizing process variables to enhance the surface roughness of FDM products. The response surface methodology (RSM) has been utilized to determine the optimal FDM machining conditions. To plan and analyze experiments, a Design of Experiments (DOE) has been employed, considering factors such as layer thickness, printing temperature, and printing velocity. By integrating these parameters, we have determined the optimal layer thickness to be 0.20 mm, printing temperature to be 205.01 degrees, and printing velocity to be 50 mm/s, resulting in a surface roughness of 0.0510 microns. A confirmation test based on the optimal parameters has demonstrated good agreement with the predicted surface roughness result.

11

Analiza wytrzymałości dielektrycznej wybranych materiałów wytworzonych w technologii druku 3D

Rak Mateusz, Najgebauer Mariusz, Jędryka Jarosław, Wilk Patryk, Kosiński Kacper

Journal of Engineering 360

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2025

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Vol. 1, Iss. 1/25

15--22

PL

W poniższej publikacji przedstawiono wyniki badań wytrzymałości dielektrycznej wybranych materiałów. Przedstawiono sposób tworzenia próbek wykorzystanych do badań przy użyciu dwóch technologii druku przestrzennego. Użyte do badań próbki zostały wytworzone z czterech materiałów o różnych właściwościach, tj. PLA, ABS, PA12 oraz pochodzącego z recyklingu (e-PLA). Wykazano znaczne różnice w wytrzymałości dielektrycznej zarówno dla poszczególnych materiałów, jak i dla samych technologii. Stwierdzono, że próbki wytworzone z materiału PA12 w technologii opartej na spiekaniu laserowym (SLS) wykazują najwyższą wytrzymałość dielektryczną. Celem badań było sprawdzenie możliwości, poprzez zbadanie wytrzymałości dielektrycznej, wytwarzania osprzętu izolacyjnego elektroenergetycznych linii przesyłowych i rozdzielczych. Wstępne wyniki badań pokazały, że przy zastosowaniu odpowiedniej technologii oraz właściwego materiału istnieje możliwość aplikacji tego typu technologii produkcyjnej.

XX

This publication presents the results of dielectric strength tests conducted on selected materials. The methodology for sample fabrication is described, utilizing two different spatial printing technologies. The tested samples were manufactured from four materials with varying properties: PLA, ABS, PA12, and a recycled material (e-PLA). Significant differences in dielectric strength were observed, both among the individual materials and between the applied manufacturing technologies. It was determined that samples made of PA12, produced using laser sintering (SLS) technology, exhibited the highest dielectric strength. The objective of the study was to evaluate the feasibility of producing insulating components for power transmission and distribution lines through dielectric strength testing. Preliminary results indicate that, with the appropriate technology and material selection, this manufacturing approach may be a viable alternative for such applications.

12

An analysis of process parameters of FFF 3D printing of PLA polymers

Smoljan B., Hajdek M., Maričević M.

Journal of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering

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2025

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Vol. 129, nr 2

76--85

EN

Purpose: The study aimed at understanding two main areas of action: first, the understanding and development of the performance of 3D printing technologies, and second, the development of the application of fractional factorial design in optimising the fused filament fabrication (FFF) 3D printing processing of PLA. Design/methodology/approach: Special attention was focused on whether differences between the usual, generally accepted values of FFF parameters affect the tensile properties of 3D-printed PLA. Tensile properties were tested using the standard test method for the tensile properties of plastics, ASTM D638, and the significance of process parameters was characterised using 25-2 fractional factorial experiments. Findings: Optimising the FFF 3D printing processing of PLA can be successfully carried out using 25-2 fractional factorial experiments. The designed factorial experiment found that the most relevant main parameters influencing the results in tensile test properties of the 3D printing of PLA are layer height, extrusion temperature, and working platform temperature. It was found that satisfactory tensile strength can be achieved even at higher layer depths with the appropriate selection of process parameters. Research limitations/implications: The paper should serve as an essential link for future research. The paper covers basic parameters and basic mechanical properties. Future research could include other parameters and other mechanical properties that define the overall bearing capacity of the material. Practical implications: The paper optimises parameters for 3D printing of PLA, primarily to facilitate the prediction of 3D printing results for industrial production needs and to achieve better processing results. Due to the rapid growth in the application of 3D-printed polylactic acid (PLA) products, the industry must manufacture PLA parts with greater confidence. There are many 3D printers and a wide range of PLA filament materials, but sometimes, there is a lack of data on the optimal combination of 3D printing process parameters. Originality/value: The paper analyses the parameters of 3D printing PLA more comprehensively. An original design has been applied that enables an integrated analysis of process parameters. It has been shown that thicker layers do not always mean worse mechanical properties, especially since thicker layers shorten processing time and improve economic efficiency.

13

HDPE composite with hybrid reinforcement as wear re sistant material for 3D printing

Olesik Piotr

Composites Theory and Practice

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2025

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R. 25, nr 4

268--275

EN

This work examines the influence of fused deposition modelling (FDM) and hybrid reinforcement with glassy carbon (GC) and nano alumina (n-Al2O3) on the wear behaviour of HDPE composites. The composites containing only n-Al2O3 showed the highest wear and unstable friction due to dominant abrasive mechanisms. The GC-filled HDPE exhibited reduced wear, associated with carbon transfer film formation. The hybrid GC/n-Al2O3 composite demon strated a synergistic effect, combining surface hardening with self-lubrication, which markedly reduced wear and sta bilized the coefficient of friction. Although the FDM-printed samples had higher wear rates than the compression moulded ones, their coefficients of friction remained similar. The results highlight that hybrid reinforcement can ef fectively suppress abrasive wear and improve the tribological stability of FDM-processed HDPE composites.

14

Review on multi-material 3D printing via FDM: insights into mechanical performance and printing parameters

Ettayan H., Abdous I., Ouballouch A., Boutahar L.

Archives of Materials Science and Engineering

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2025

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Vol. 133, nr 2

49--63

EN

Purpose: The review aims to explore and synthesise the most recent advancements in the parametric study of multi-material fused deposition modelling (FDM), one of the most widely adopted additive manufacturing (AM) techniques. The growing demand for functional components that integrate multiple materials has highlighted the need to understand how process parameters influence mechanical behaviour, interfacial adhesion, and structural performance. The work addresses a knowledge gap by compiling and critically analysing experimental findings related to material compatibility, processing conditions, and optimisation methods.Design/methodology/approach: The paper employs a comprehensive literature review methodology, focusing on experimental and theoretical studies that cover the mechanical, thermal, and morphological performance of multi-material 3D-printed parts. The approach involves comparative analysis of results under varying parameters such as extrusion temperature, infill density, printing speed, and layer thickness, along with innovative solutions like hybrid structures, recycled materials, and algorithmic optimisation techniques (GA-ANN, Taguchi, SLTAT).Findings: The review identifies key parameters influencing mechanical strength, wear resistance, and interfacial bonding in multi-material FDM. Several material pairings (e.g., PLA-TPU, ABS-TPU) demonstrate improved performance when optimised geometrically or thermally. Bio-inspired and laminated structures enhance energy absorption and flexibility. Innovations, such as adjusting the transition layer temperature, improve inter-layer bonding.Research limitations/implications: The review is limited by the heterogeneity of experimental setups and material systems used in the literature. Future research should focus on standardised testing methods, real-time monitoring systems, and smart control of printing environments to enable broader industrial adoption.Practical implications: The review provides practical insights for enhancing part performance in the aerospace, automotive, and biomedical sectors through precise parameter control. Designers and engineers can benefit from the compiled data to select optimal material combinations and printing strategies for functional, cost-effective, and sustainable production.Originality/value: The paper provides a consolidated and up-to-date overview of multimaterial FDM research, offering value to researchers, designers, and manufacturers aiming to exploit the full potential of 3D printing. It bridges experimental findings and practical applications to promote informed decision-making in advanced manufacturing design.

15

Experimental study of raster angle effects on crack propagation in SENT specimens of PLA manufactured by FDM

Aourik O., Chouaf A.

Archives of Materials Science and Engineering

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2025

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Vol. 134, nr 1

5--13

EN

Purpose: The study aims to investigate the impact of raster angle and filament configuration on crack propagation mechanisms in 3D-printed PLA parts. Although numerous studies have addressed surface quality, stiffness, and strength, there is still a lack of understanding regarding fracture behaviour and damage propagation in printed polymers. This paper aims to fill that gap by analysing how specific printing parameters affect fracture resistance. Design/methodology/approach: An experimental approach was adopted using Single Edge Notched Tension (SENT) specimens printed in PLA. Two filament configurations were considered: parallel and crossed between layers. Each configuration was tested under three raster angles (0°, 45°, and 90°). The critical stress intensity factor (KIC) was used to evaluate and compare resistance to crack propagation. The measured KIC values ranged from 0.75 MPa^m (90°/90°) to 4.52 MPa^m (45°/-45°). Findings: The results show that both raster angle and filament configuration significantly influence crack propagation behaviour. Crossed filament configurations generally demonstrated higher resistance to crack propagation compared to parallel ones. Raster angle also played a critical role: toughness decreased with increasing angle in the a/a configuration, while the 45°/-45° configuration achieved the highest resistance (KIC = 4.52 MPa^m). Overall, crack propagation mechanisms varied between filament breakage at 0°/0° and filament separation at larger angles. Research limitations/implications: The study is limited to PLA material and specific raster angles. Future research should investigate a broader range of materials, environmental conditions, and loading types to generalise findings and enhance predictive models for fracture in printed parts. Practical implications: The findings provide practical guidance for optimising print parameters to improve fracture resistance in functional parts. The knowledge can be applied to the design of lightweight structural components, biomedical implants, and customised mechanical parts where fracture toughness is critical. Originality/value: The paper contributes original insights into the underexplored area of fracture behaviour in 3D-printed materials, supported by quantified fracture toughness values. It is particularly valuable to researchers and practitioners seeking to improve the structural performance of additively manufactured components.

16

Optimization of process parameters for compressive strength-to-weight ratio of additively manufactured polyethylene terephthalate glycol

Obaeed Nareen Hafidh, Abdulridha HInd H., Shwaish Raed R., Bedan Aqeel S.

Advances in Science and Technology. Research Journal

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2025

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Vol. 19, no. 6

301--315

EN

Additive manufacturing (AM), particularly the Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) has become a cornerstone manufacturing technology in the nascent field of 3D printing. The mechanical properties and effective use of material in 3D printed parts are essential for enhancing the potential of AM in industrial and functional applications. This paper explores how core FDM printing process parameters: print temperature, extrusion width, and printing speed affect the compressive strength-to-weight ratio of Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol PETG parts produced via FDM. Based on the Box-Behnken design of Response Surface Methodology (RSM) the influence of these conditions concerning the mechanics and material properties were studied. The results show that a printing temperature of 250 °C provides improved compressive strength as well as decreased weight through strong bonding between layers. Small, extruded widths (0.5 mm) have been found to offer the ideal strength-to-weight ratio while large extruded widths (0.6 mm) greatly enhanced strength by adding weight. A slower printing speed of 30mm/s promoted greater compressive strength but yielded more dense parts. In the multi-objective desirability optimization, optimal parameters were found in which the printing temperature was 250°C, the extruded width was 0.5879mm and the printing speed was 30mm/s. The results of this study are beneficial for realizing lightweight yet mechanically abundant 3D printing parts while enhancing the field of AM in different industries.

17

Optimization of fused deposition modeling parameters to enhance tensile strength and surface roughness of polyethylene terephthalate glycol

Shabeeb Alaa Hassan, Abdulwahhab Ahmed Basil, Ismael Hameed S., Ghazi Safaa Kadhim

Advances in Science and Technology. Research Journal

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2025

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Vol. 19, no. 8

345--358

EN

The wide examination of FDM as an industrial additive manufacturing technique appears because it provides design freedom alongside improved material efficiency and reasonable cost. This study's main objective is to investigate the relationship of Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) process parameters with the tensile properties and surface roughness of Polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG) parts. A response surface methodology (RSM) utilizing Box–Behnken design methodology studied three essential parameters consisting of infill density and layer height, together with plate temperature. The analysis demonstrated that layer height proved to be the main element affecting tensile strength because it contributed 80.9% of the experimental variations, while infill density stood out as the leading determinant of surface roughness, which was responsible for 78% of the contribution. Experimental testing proved that the predictive model showed accurate results when validated through measurements of tensile strength, which produced maximum errors of 1.28%, and surface roughness, which yielded maximum errors of 6.54%. A desirability analysis indicated that the ideal parameters of the roughness and tensile strength of the printed parts included an infill density of 64.24% combined with a layer height of 0.1813 mm and plate temperature of 51.46°C. These outcomes provide a comprehensive understanding of process parameter effects that result in quality PETG parts with mechanical performance. The two-axis optimization methodology for PETG also enhances its use in functional engineering systems that require simultaneous mechanical durability and manufacturing accuracy.

18

Optimization of fused deposition modeling parameters for polyethylene terephthalate glycol flexural strength and dimensional accuracy

Abdulridha HInd Hadi, Obaeed Nareen Hafidh, Jaber Adil Shbeeb

Advances in Science and Technology. Research Journal

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2025

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Vol. 19, no. 4

50--64

EN

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is a type of additive manufacturing (AM) that has received significant interest from researchers and industries due to its flexibility in design, efficient use of materials, and affordable costs. In this paper, the main objective is to investigate the influences of FDM process parameters on the flexural properties as well as the accuracy of the final part made from polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG) material, which is widely used for 3D printing due to its strength and ease of use. A response surface methodology (RSM) approach based on a Box–Behnken design was employed, with three key process parameters: infill line distance, wall line count, and build plate temperature. The analysis of the data indicated that all three parameters affected the inherent characteristics of the printed parts, including mechanical and dimensional characteristics of the printed parts. The build plate temperature was identified as the most significant parameter, contributing 53% of the variability in the flexural strength of the printed specimens and 39.7% to deviation in the dimensional accuracy of the specimens, as indicated by the analysis of variance (ANOVA). A comparison between the predicted values of the model and the corresponding experimental results showed the suitability of the developed model with high accuracy. The maximum percentage errors observed in this study were 3.4% for the flexural strength and 7.5% for the dimension accuracy, establishing the efficacy of the optimization technique. These outcomes are meaningful to understand the influences of the process parameters on material response and offer a systematic approach to develop structurally enhanced PETG parts with improved mechanical characteristics and geometric dimensions.

19

Mechanical behavior of 3D printed polymers under tensile and bending loads

Saldaña-Robles Alberto, Sánchez-Angeles Alexis, de J. Balvantín-García Antonio, Núñez-Altamirano Diego A., Capilla-González Gustavo

Advances in Science and Technology. Research Journal

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2025

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Vol. 19, no. 10

371--384

EN

This study investigates the effects of infill orientation, infill density, and printing speed on the mechanical behavior of PLA, ABS, and PETG materials. Using Taguchi's DoE approach, relevant mechanical properties determined from uniaxial tensile and four-point bending tests were statistically analyzed to assess their significance. Results indicate that infill orientation and infill density significantly influence the mechanical properties of the materials, whereas printing speed showed minimal impact. The stress-strain for the three materials determined from uniaxial are presented. Furthermore, 3D surfaces plots describing the interaction between the parameters are presented and discussed. These findings provide systematized and accessible information for optimizing 3D printing parameters and calibrating finite element models to predict the behavior of printed components under tensile and bending loads.

20

Analysis of fused filament fabrication / fused deposiotion modelling applications for production of casting patterns used in sand casting

Bernat Łukasz, Kroma Arkadiusz

Advances in Science and Technology. Research Journal

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2025

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Vol. 19, no. 7

427--439

EN

This paper presents an analysis of FFF/FDM (Fused Filament Fabrication / Fused Deposiotion Modeling) applications for production of casting patterns used in sand casting, with particular emphasis on short-run and prototype production. For this purpose, casting patterns of different shape and height of incremental layer (0.29 mm, 0.19 mm, 0.14 mm and 0.09 mm) were made of Z-ABS filament produced by Zortrax. Geometrical and dimensional analysis of the patterns was carried out, surface roughness parameters were measured, and a visual analysis of the surface was performed. In order to evaluate the conclusions observed based on the analysis of casting patterns, 130 x 102.5 x 37.5 mm sized shaped castings were designed and manufactured from aluminum and grey cast iron, which were also subjected to analysis. The last element of the research was a visual analysis of the reproduction of markings on the castings.