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Nowe dane na temat mioceńskich ślimaków słodkowodnych i lądowych ze złoża węgla brunatnego Bełchatów (pole Szczerców, niecka łódzka)

Salamon Mariusz A., Bugajski Michał, Degórski Przemysław

Przegląd Geologiczny

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2025

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Vol. 73, nr 8

733--737

EN

About 50 species of freshwater and terrestrial gastropods are known from Miocene deposits of central Poland. Current research at the Bełchatów Lignite Mine confirmed the presence of 31 taxa. Two of these have not previously been recorded from this area. Additionally, one has not been noted from Poland. The gastropod assemblage indicates that it inhabited wetlands and marshes in subtropical climates, as well asestuarine-like backwaters and extensive freshwater systems. Recorded oval and round holes on the gastropod shells are probably caused by bioerosion, produced by cyanobacteria and/or drilid beetle larvae. New data on Miocene freshwater and terrestrial gastropods from the Bełchatów Lignite Mine (Szczerców field, Łódź Depression, central Poland).

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Early Oligocene brachiopods from the rocky-shore deposits at Mammendorf, central Germany

Bitner Maria Aleksandra, Müller Arnold

Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae

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2022

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Vol. 92, No. 1

87--107

EN

Thirteen species, belonging to eleven genera, i.e., Discinisca Dall, Novocrania Lee and Brunton, Lacazella Munier-Chalmas, Pliothyrina van Roy, Terebratulina d’Orbigny, Megathiris d’Orbigny, Argyrotheca Dall, Bronnothyris Popiel-Barczyk and Smirnova, Joania Álvarez, Brunton and Long, Platidia Costa and Megerlia King, have been identified in the lower Oligocene rocky-shore deposits at Mammendorf, central Germany. The occurrence of the species Discinisca fallens (Wood), Argyrotheca bitnerae Dulai and Megerlia truncata (Linnaeus) extends their stratigraphic range back to the early Oligocene. The affinity to the early Oligocene brachiopod fauna of the Mainz Basin is noted.

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Comparing Trophic Niches of Sympatric Raptors in Agricultural Landscape in Central Poland

Romanowski Jerzy, Lesiński Grzegorz

Polish Journal of Ecology

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2019

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Vol. 67, nr 4

331--338

EN

According to basic ecological principle, species that share the same niche do not occupy the same environment for a long time, and sympatry of two or more such species provides an interesting field for the analysis of their trophic niche differentiation. To examine the potential differences in the dimensions of the trophic niche we studied the diet of three sympatric avian predators that prey on colonial Microtus rodents. The study area in central Poland is located in an agricultural landscape, composed of crop fields, as well as meadows and pastures located within a small river valley. The pellets of long-eared owl (Asio otus), barn owl (Tyto alba) and kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) were collected from the 750 m2 study site including church building and its surrounding in the spring of 2016 and 2017. The analysis of pellets provided data on a total of 4128 vertebrate prey individuals (1914 from barn owl, 1749 from long-eared owl, and 465 from kestrel). The most important prey group of all three predators were small mammals (90%, 14 species) and the most frequently preyed species was Microtus arvalis (making up 72% of vertebrate prey of long-eared owl, 59% of kestrel and 53% of barn owl). Despite the general similarity in the diet composition, there were differences in the contribution of several prey species (e.g. Soricomorpha, M. arvalis, Mus musculus, Rattus norvegicus, and Apodemus spp.) and the diversity of the diet between the predators. We conclude that the trophic niches of the studied sympatric species differ in several dimensions, including diel activity, prey size and taxon-specific feeding preferences.

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Niche Dynamics and Biodiversity : Many Rodent Species on One Marshy Meadow

Jancewicz E., Gliwicz J.

Polish Journal of Ecology

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2017

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Vol. 65, nr 4

371--379

EN

The ecological niche of a species is determined by its tolerance to environmental factors and by interactions with other species, particularly those using the same resource. We assessed spatial niches of four rodent species coexisting in one meadow habitat within the Białowieża Primeval Forest. Niche characteristics were based on the valorisation of the habitat around live-trapping sites visited by rodents during seven years of the study. The population size of each species was monitored and expressed as an average annual density. The root vole Microtus oeconomus was the most numerous and dominant species, with its density widely fluctuating due to the temporal increases of predation pressure exerted by the weasel Mustela nivalis. During the study period, the spatial niche of the root vole was nearly constant, with only significantly increased tolerance towards shrub covered sites at times of its high population density. However, even a slight niche expansion of the highly abundant root voles displaced accompanying species: the bank vole Myodes (Clethrionomys) glareolus, the yellow necked mouse Apodemus flavicollis and the striped field mouse A. agrarius, from their preferred sites and efficiently decreased rodent species diversity in the studied habitat. This study illustrates a possible mechanism of the direct effect of predation on the dominant prey species population and indirect one on the species diversity changes over ecological time.

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Mosasauroid predation on an ammonite – Pseudaspidoceras – from the Early Turonian of south-eastern Morocco

Gale A. S., Kennedy W. J., Martill D.

Acta Geologica Polonica

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2017

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Vol. 67, no. 1

31--46

EN

A juvenile specimen of the ammonite Pseudaspidoceras from the Early Turonian of the Goulmima area in the Province of Er-Rachida in south-eastern Morocco shows clear evidence of predation by a tooth-bearing verte-brate. Most of the body chamber is missing, as a result of post-burial compactional crushing. The adapertural part of the shell on the left flank of the surviving fragment of body chamber bears six circular punctuations; the right flank four. These are interpreted as the product of a single bite by a mosasauroid, probably a Tethysaurus. The taxonomy of the Goulmima Pseudaspidoceras is discuused in an appendix.

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In defence of an iconic ichnogenus : Oichnus Bromley

Wisshak M., Kroh A., Bertling M., Knaust D., Nielsen J. K., Jagt J. W. M., Neumann C., Nielsen K. S. S.

Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae

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2015

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Vol. 85, No. 3

445--451

EN

By establishing the bioerosion ichnogenus Oichnus, Richard Bromley (1981) addressed ‘small round holes in shells’ and catalysed a series of still ongoing discussions on ichnotaxonomical principles. In a recent revision by Zonneveld and Gingras (2014), Oichnus was rejected, together with Tremichnus Brett, 1985 and Fossichnus Nielsen, Nielsen and Bromley, 2003, by means of subjective synonymisation with the presumed senior synonym Sedilichnus Müller, 1977. However, Sedilichnus is nomenclaturally unavailable, because it is an atelonym (conditionally proposed). In addition, reinvestigation of the type material of ‘Sedilichnus’ shows that it probably describes variably shaped oscula and thus is a genuine morphological character of the host sponge Prokaliapsisjanus, rather than a bioerosion trace fossil. The ichnogenera Oichnus and Tremichnus are re vised, leading to the synonymisation of Balticapunctum Rozhnov, 1989 with Tremichnus, and of Fossichnus with Oichnus. The refined ichnogeneric diagnoses return Oichnus to complete or incomplete bioerosive penetrations in calcareous skeletal substrates, commonly interpreted as praedichnia with or without signs of attachment, while Tremichnus (now including O. excavatus) exclusively refers to shallow pits passing into echinoderm skeletons that are interpreted as domichnia or fixichnia.

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Free-ranging domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) in Central Poland: density, penetration range and diet composition

Krauze-Gryz D., Gryz J.

Polish Journal of Ecology

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2014

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Vol. 62, nr 1

183--193

EN

The aim of this study was to assess the density and diet composition of free-ranging dogs in Poland. The study was conducted in a field and forest mosaic in the central part of the country in the years 2005–2011. The density of the free-ranging dogs was assessed during night counts along repeated transect routes. The number of dogs seen and the feasible observation area were recorded to calculate density index for each control. The day and night counts captured data on group composition and penetration range. Diets were studied through scat analyses. The dog density ranged from 2.2–3.1 ind. km-2 depending on the area. Most dogs were observed alone, and 40% formed groups of 2 to 5 dogs. Most groups were recorded close to buildings, but the group organisation changed (especially during the daytime) with increasing distance from the buildings: 35% of dogs in the village were in groups, but 55% of dogs formed groups at a distance of more than 100 m from the buildings. The night proportion of dogs in groups was approximately 50%, regardless of the distance. Their scats contained mostly cereal given by farmers. The prey remains were game species: roe deer (1.3% of occurrences in summer and 12% in winter), brown hare (3–4%), small mammals (5–9.5%) and birds (approx. 1.5%). The study demonstrated that the abundance of dogs in the rural areas of central Poland may play an important role in the ecosystem.

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Predation of adult large diving beetles Dytiscus marginalis (Linnaeus, 1758), Dytiscus circumcinctus (Ahrens, 1811) and Cybister lateralimarginalis (De Geer, 1774) (Coleoptera: Dytiscidae) on fish fry

Frelik A.

Oceanological and Hydrobiological Studies

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2014

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Vol. 43, No. 4

360--365

EN

The presented study describes the presence of fish fry in the diet of imagines of large Dytiscidae. The study was conducted between March and September in 2012 and 2013. A total of 163 large, aquatic, diving beetles were caught, which represented the following species: Dytiscus marginalis, Dytiscus circumcinctus, Cybister lateralimarginalis. Fish were identified by scales, bones, vertebrae, pharyngeal teeth. Insects were identified by epicrania, mandibles, hooks, limbs, body segments, eyes and wings. Crustaceans were identified by limbs and Oligochaeta by bristles. Seeds and eggs of invertebrates were found whole and intact. Fragments of fish fry were found in the digestive tracts of all three species collected in three studied ponds. The alimentary canals of the studied beetles contained also fragments of insects, detritus, plant tissue, Crustacea, Arachnida, other invertebrates, Oligochaeta, and Gastropoda.

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Przyrodnicze i ekonomiczne uwarunkowania gospodarki stawowej w rezerwacie ornitologicznym „Stawy Raszyńskie”

Walczuk T., Romanowski J.

Woda-Środowisko-Obszary Wiejskie

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2013

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T. 13, z. 4

175--184

PL

Podstawową funkcją stawów rybnych jest produkcja żywności, jednak ostatnio coraz więcej uwagi poświęca się ich roli w retencjonowaniu i ochronie jakości wody oraz w utrzymaniu bioróżnorodności. Stawy rybne są m.in. ważnym siedliskiem ptaków wodno-błotnych, nierzadko stanowiących swego rodzaju „wyspy bioróżnorodności” w krajobrazach przekształconych przez człowieka. Przykładem wielofunkcyjnego gospodarstwa stawowego są „Stawy Raszyńskie” – zwarty kompleks stawów karpiowych założonych w XVIII w., objęty od 1978 r. ochroną w formie rezerwatu przyrody „Stawy Raszyńskie”. Celem ochrony jest zachowanie cennego siedliska lęgów rzadkich gatunków ptaków oraz zapewnienie żerowisk i miejsc odpoczynku ptaków przelotnych. Wprowadzenie ochrony rezerwatowej znacznie ogranicza możliwości prowadzenia rentownej produkcji karpia (brak możliwości renowacji stawów, zmniejszanie się lustra wody). W ostatnich latach dodatkowym czynnikiem negatywnie wpływającym na jego produkcję było powiększenie się kolonii rozrodczej kormoranów Phalacrocorax carbo na Stawie Falenckim. Kolonia, założona przez kormorany ok. 2007 r., rozrosła się do ok. 100 par lęgowych w 2012 r. Równolegle w tym samym okresie zwiększały się straty w produkcji karpia, które w 2011 r. osiągnęły poziom ok. 76% materiału zarybieniowego narybkowego. Zastosowanie w 2012 r. kompleksowej ochrony stawów przed drapieżnictwem kormoranów doprowadziło do zmniejszenia strat w tym roku do poziomu 58,9% materiału zarybieniowego. Autorzy omawiają ścieżkę legislacyjną, dopuszczającą redukcję liczebności kormorana oraz przedstawiają skuteczność aktywnych metod ukierunkowanych na zahamowanie drapieżnictwa kormoranów.

EN

The main function of fish ponds is food production, but recently more and more attention is being paid to their role in water retention, quality protection and maintaining biodiversity. Fish ponds constitute a very important habitat for water birds, being often a type of “biodiversity islands” among the landscape modified by people. An example of a fish farm playing such a multifunction role is “Stawy Raszyńskie”, a compact complex of carp ponds, established in the 18th century, since 1978 protected in a form of an ornithological nature reserve “Stawy Raszyńskie”. The main goal of protection is the preservation of valuable breeding sites of rare bird species and providing feeding sites and resting place for migratory birds. The introduction of nature protection significantly limits profitable carp production (no possibilities of pond renovation, decreasing water surface). An additional factor, which negatively influences fish production has appeared recently. This is the increasing nesting colony of cormorants Phalacrocorax carbo, situated on the island of Falencki Pond. The colony, set up by cormorants about the year 2007, enlarged to about 100 breeding pairs by the year 2012. Simultaneously, carp production recorded increasing losses which achieved 76% of fish fry in 2011. The implementation of complex protection measures against cormorants’ predation in 2012 led to a decrease of losses in the same year to 58.9% of fish fry. Authors discuss the legislation leading to the reduction of cormorants’ number and present the effectiveness of active methods focussed on the mitigation of cormorants’ predation.

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Survival chances of ground nests in a meadow habitat : a case study in Vrana Lake Nature Park (Mediterranean region, Croatia)

Purger J., Muzinić J., Purger D.

Polish Journal of Ecology

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2012

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Vol. 60, nr 1

207-212

EN

The number of ground-nesting bird species in meadows, one of the most vulnerable habitats in the ornithological reserve of Vrana Lake Nature Park has decreased in recent decades. Nest survival rates were investigated in meadows and reed beds using nest predation experiments in late March and in May 2005. Predators damaged 18% of the 50 artificial nests placed in the pasture meadow habitat in March and 22% in May. Daily survival rate of nests were found to be similar in March (97%) and May (96%). In May, 64% of 25 nests located in the reed bed were discovered by the predators, with the daily survival rate of nests (90%) being significantly lower than that of nests in the nearby meadow. The results suggest that the reasons for the decreasing number of nesting bird species may be - instead of the pronounced presence and activity of predators in the area - the shrinkage of meadow area, the lack of buffer zone, the proximity of agricultural lands, and disturbance caused by intensive grazing.

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Nest survival in a large river valley: an experiment using artificial nests on an island and bank of Vistula River (Poland)

Żmihorski M., Lewtak J., Brzeziński M., Romanowski J.

Polish Journal of Ecology

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2010

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Vol. 58, nr 1

197-203

EN

Predation pressure, which varies among habitats, is important factor for selection of nesting sites by birds. We investigated artificial nest depredation on an island 23 ha in size and on the river bank covered by willow-poplar forest and meadows in the middle Vistula river valley, in the spring and autumn 2006. We used polyurethane thrush-size nests placed at three heights (ground, bush and tree) with one quail egg. Each nest was checked twice, 7 and 14 days after the beginning of the experiment, in total 381 nest-inspections was included. Additionally, we live-trapped rodents (data from 510 trapnights included) which are potential predators of broods. We found that the survival rate of artificial nests was higher on the island as compared to the bank. Artificial nests placed on the ground revealed the higher survival rate than the nests placed on trees and bushes. Nest survival rate was higher in the autumn than in the spring. Repeatability of the results (survived vs. depredated) for the first and second 7-day period was high but lower on the island as compared to the bank. The abundance of rodents was higher on the bank during the spring, but no difference was recorded in the autumn. Rodents were also more abundant in the autumn than in the spring. This may indicate that survival rates of nests were not affected by rodents directly.

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Kiss of death of a hunting fish : trace fossil Osculichnus labialis igen. et isp. nov. from late Eocene - early Oligocene prodelta sediments of the Mezardere Formation, Thrace Basin, NW Turkey

Demircan H., Uchman A.

Acta Geologica Polonica

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2010

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Vol. 60, no. 1

29-38

EN

The trace fossil Osculichnus labialis igen. et isp. nov. occurs as hypichnial pairs of uneven bilobate mounds in early Oligocene prodelta sediments of the Thrace Basin. Osculichnus is generally elliptical or crescentic in outline and has two lip-like lobes: a smaller and a larger one, which are separated by an undulate furrow. Herein, it is interpreted as a hunting trace (praedichnion) of a fish penetrating a surficial sand layer and into an underlying mud horizon. The fish hunted for small endobenthic bivalves and perhaps other invertebrates such as polychaetes. Penetration into surficial mud rather than sand resulted in poorly preserved variants of this trace fossil, whose median furrow is commonly not visible. The probability of fish trace makers is supported by experiments.

13

The effect of mowing on next-year predation of grassland bird nests : experimental study

Ejsmond M.

Polish Journal of Ecology

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2008

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Vol. 56, nr 2

299-307

EN

The effect of mowing on nextyear nest predation was studied in grassland areas on the outskirts of Cracow (south Poland). In 2004 and 2005, nesting success at three sites with two plots each - one unmowed for 2.3 years and one mowed every year - was assessed experimentally with artificial nests baited with two Japanese Quail Coturnix japonica L. eggs. Biomass samples were collected for estimations of the standing crop of vegetation. Mowing was found to be correlated with nest predation pressure on the unmowed plots in two meadows that had greater vegetation cover. At the third site, nest predation and vegetation cover did not differ between the mowed and unmowed plots. All selected sites were classified as Arrhenatherum elatius grassland. Also birds communities of study sites were similar in regard to occurrence of small ground-nesting passerine species: Grasshopper Warbler Locustella naevia Bodd., Reed Bunting Emberiza schoeniclus L., Whinchat Saxicola rubetra L., Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava L. Artificial nests were destroyed mainly by corvids and only few percent were recognized as destroyed by mammals. The intensity of nest destruction differed greatly between years, probably because Magpies Pica pica L. were less active in 2005.

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Gniazdowe akumulacje szczątków fauny w środkowojurajskich iłach rudonośnych Wyżyny Krakowsko-Częstochowskiej-wnioski paleobiologiczne

Zatoń M., Salamon M. A., Marynowski L., Zatoń R.

Przegląd Geologiczny

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2007

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Vol. 55, nr 5

424-429

EN

Distinct faunal accumulations in the uppermost Bajocian/lowermost Bathonian, lowermost and Middle Bathonian of the Polish Jura (south-central Poland) have been detected. The fossils are densely packed in the centre of the accumulations and more or less dispersed in their margins. The accumulations vary in size, but all are rich in various groups of organisms, of which the molluscs (mainly bivalves) and echinoderms predominate. The echinoderms are all disarticulated, and shelly fauna occur as angular fragments with sharp edges, of random sizes and without any signs of abrasion. The different sizes of the fossil remains, from tiny echinoderm ossicles or juvenile shelly fauna to medium-sized shell fragments or belemnite rostra, exclude any transportation and thus sorting. Worth of noting is the occurrence of similar faunal groups in each accumulation. The general shape and composition of the accumulations, as well as their taphonomical features, especially the angularity of shell fragments, point to durophagous (shell-crushing) predation rather than physical processes. The various organisms may indicate that the potential predator (most probably fish) fed on various invertebrates. The indigestible particles were later regurgitated forming the accumulations discussed. The presence of various epibionts on the fossil fragments indicate,that they rested upon the sea-floor for some time-span after they had been regurgitated. Then the scavengers, as well as current action or water movements, have been responsible for dispersion of some of the fossils, as is well-visible at the margins of the investigated accumulations..

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Factors describing the distribution of the zooplankton community in the Gulf of Finland in the context of interactions between native and introduced predatory cladocerans

Pollumäe A., Kotta J.

Oceanologia

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2007

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No. 49 (2)

277-290

EN

Mesozooplankton communities were studied monthly at six sites in the Gulf of Finland during six ice-free seasons. The abundances of different zooplankton taxa were related to temperature, salinity, eutrophication level (total nitrogen and phosphorus), phytoplankton Chl a and density of predatory cladocerans, including the non-indigenous Cercopagis pengoi and the native Leptodora kindtii. The results indicated that variability in the zooplankton communities was correlated not only with predation by mesozooplankton but also with bottom-up effects. Predation by the non-indigenous C. pengoi may significantly affect the dynamics of Cladocera and Rotatoria in the Gulf of Finland during the summer season.

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Daphnia: model herbivore, predator and prey

Lampert Winfried

Polish Journal of Ecology

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2006

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Vol. 54, nr 4

607-620

EN

In the past 30 years, Daphnia has become a model organism in aquatic ecology. I review the changing concepts and paradigms in plankton ecology as reflected in the work on Daphnia. The availability of radiotracers favoured a new physiological approach that resulted in better energetic models and more reliable estimates of filtering rates. This led to deeper insights into the role of herbivore grazing on phytoplankton and microbial communities, and nutrient recycling. It provided a conceptual basis for general hypotheses on predictable seasonal successions (e.g. the PEG model). On the other hand, increasing knowledge about selective predation on zooplankton triggered population dynamic models and gave explanations for changing community structures. The Size-Efficiency-Hypothesis generated a framework for studies on trade-offs between competitive ability and susceptibility to predation. Daphnia was now in the centre of interaction-based concepts, being predator and prey at the same time. It was the backbone of practical applications of the theory in food-web manipulations. When ultimate factors came into the focus, Daphnia played an important role in explaining striking phenomena like diel vertical migration and cyclomorphosis. Its central position in food-webs, the unique propagation mode, easy cultivation and accessibility by molecular genetic methods made it a favourite object for studies in evolutionary ecology, concerning local adaptation, evolution of defences and life histories, induced phenotypic change, and genetic diversity. The large advantage of Daphnia over other biological model organisms is that its importance in pelagic freshwater systems is undoubtedly known. Hence there is a direct way of applying the results to ecological systems.

17

Chaoborus flavicans in the food web - competitor or resource for fish?

Pekcan-Hekim Zeynep, Liljendahl-Nurminen Anne, Horppila Jukka

Polish Journal of Ecology

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2006

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Vol. 54, nr 4

701-707

EN

In lakes, chaoborids can be a food resource and also act as competitors for planktivorous fish. Usually their density varies reciprocally with the density of planktivorous fish, which forage on chaoborids. Results from Lake Hiidenvesi show, however, that in deep clay-turbid lakes chaoborids may be the main regulators of herbivorous zooplankton although the density of planktivorous fish is high. This is because turbidity reduces the feeding efficiency of fish while the feeding of chaoborids is not affected by the high turbidity levels.

18

Conspicuousness of a flush-pursue predator, the Painted Redstart (Myioborus pictus L.) : an experiment using bird models in a breeding habitat

Jabłoński P. G.

Polish Journal of Ecology

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2004

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Vol. 52, nr 1

79-81

EN

White patches in the Painted Redstart (Myioborus pictus) are adaptations to flush prey during flush-pursue foraging which is characteristic for this species. Conspicuousness of white wing patches was measured in terms if time needed for a human observer to find a taxidermic model in a natural habitat. The time to find a model without patches do not confer higher conspicuousness to non-moving redstarts. The results are discussed in terms of predation risk from such visually orienting predators as hawks or or pygmy owls, and in comparison to other Myioborus species, all which do not posses the white wing patches.

19

Effect of macroarthropods on microbial and faunal numbers and organic matter content in soil

Kajak A., Kusińska A., Stanuszek S., Stefaniak O., Szanser M., Wasylik A., Wasilewska L.

Polish Journal of Ecology

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2000

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Vol. 48, nr 4

339-354

EN

A field exclusion experiment in Arrhenatherrethalia mown meadow was carried out in mesocosms to analyse the role of epigeic, mobile macroarthropods in decomposition processes. A mineral bag technique allowed assessment of annual organic matter accumulation in the sandy substrate of mesocosms. Higher total organic C content was recorded in the top substrate layer (0-3 cm) in mesocosms accessible for macroarthropods, than in closed, inaccessible ones (17 and 23% more, respectively, in the two years), as well as higher amount of C in humus acids (6 and 36% more in two years). Possible reasons for these differences were considered. The total plant biomass, the litter disappearenc3 rate and water content in litter did not differ significantly between the types of mesocosms. In the top layer of mesocosms accessible for macroarthropods higher content of comminuted plant material (38,9 g m^-2) and arthropods feces (12.3 g^-2) were found compared to the amount in closed mesocosms (17,1 and 2,1 g m^-2 respectively). But the particulate organic matter derived from comminuted plant remnants and from fecal pellets accounted, in the period of the highest content, for about a half of the total carbon accumulated in the top substrate layer. In the litter of the open mesocosms reduced number of fungivorous mites and aphids was found, coupled with higher density of bacterivorous nematodes and higher abundance of fungi. The density of fungivorous mites was negatively correlated with the intensity of area patrolling by Araneae (tau = -0.79, P=0,0028) and Staphylinidae (tau = -0.58, P = 0.03). The elimination of aphids was positively correlated with area patrolling by the last group (tau = 0.81, P = 0.005). These results suggest that predation by macroarthropods changed proportions between fungi- and bacteriovorous invertebrates and as a consequence proportions between fungi and bacteria.