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1

Działania Grupy Wagnera w kontekście konfliktu zbrojnego w Syrii

Laskowska Patrycja

Wiedza Obronna

|

2024

|

nr 3

46--67

PL

Syria, pod rządami Baszszara al-Asada, jest pogrążona w brutalnej wojnie domowej od 2011 roku. W obliczu tego chaosu, Rosja dąży do rozszerzenia swoich wpływów i zabezpieczenia swoich interesów na Bliskim Wschodzie. Tradycyjna interwencja wojskowa wiąże się jednak z znacznym ryzykiem i międzynarodową kontrolą. Aby obejść te wyzwania, Rosja coraz częściej polega na Grupie Wagnera. Ci najemnicy działają w cieniu, wykonując zadania zbyt wrażliwe lub kontrowersyjne dla regularnych sił zbrojnych. Są oni często kojarzeniz rosyjskim rządem i stali się znaczącym graczem w konflikcie syryjskim. W kraju rozdartego wojną, gdzie granice między wrogiem a przyjacielem są często zamazane, Grupa Wagnera odgrywa unikalną rolę. Ich zaangażowanie w Syrii wykracza poza tradycyjne działania wojskowe; są głęboko powiązani ze strategicznymi, ekonomicznymi i politycznymi ambicjami Federacji Rosyjskiej. Główny problem badawczy artykułu ujęty jest w pytaniu: „Jaką rolę odegrała Grupa Wagnera w konflikcie zbrojnym w Syrii?” Hipoteza główna otrzymała następujące brzmienie: Odpowiedź na to pytanie została sformułowana poprzez dobranie odpowiednich metod badawczych, takich jak analiza podczas badania Grupy Wagnera poprzez ich działalność oraz oddziaływanie w miejscach objętych obszarem ich funkcjonowania, a także synteza do formułowania podsumowania niniejszego artykułu.

EN

Syria, under the rule of Bashar al-Assad, has been engulfed in a brutal civil war since 2011. Amidst this chaos, Russia aims to extend its influence and secure its interests in the Middle East. However, traditional military intervention involves significant risks and international scrutiny. To circumvent these challenges, Russia increasingly relies on the Wagner Group. These mercenaries operate in the shadows, executing tasks that are too sensitive or controversial for the regular armed forces. They are often associated with the Russian government and have become a significant player in the Syrian conflict. Ina war-torn country where the lines between friend and foe are often blurred, the Wagner Group plays a unique role. Their involvement in Syria goes beyond traditional military engagement; they are deeply intertwined with the strategic, economic, and political ambitions of the Russian Federation. This article addresses the question, "What role has the Wagner Group played in the armed conflict in Syria?" The answer to this question has been formulated by employing appropriate research methods, such as analysis during the study of the Wagner Group through their activities and impact in the areas of their operation, as well as synthesis to formulate the conclusion of this article.

2

The Yom Kippur War revisited : did the West fall victim to Soviet strategic deception?

Smyrgała Dominik

Kwartalnik Bellona

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2024

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Nr 4

113--122

EN

The article sums up the reasons for the intelligence failure of Israel’s IDI before the outbreak of the Yom Kippur War. Based on the deliberations of several analysts, the author concludes that although the event is well investigated from the Israeli perspective and the psychological and systemic reasons indicated are convincing, the available works do not explain all the aspects of the strategic surprise the Israel Defence Forces (IDF) fell victim to. The analyses related to the work of intelligence of the invaders, the possible deception of the Israeli political and military leadership’s mindset, and the broader context of the Cold War are still missing.

PL

Autor analizuje przyczyny niepowodzeń izraelskich służb wywiadowczych przed wybuchem wojny Jom Kippur. Konkluduje, że choć wydarzenie to jest dobrze zbadane z izraelskiej perspektywy, a wskazane przyczyny psychologiczne i systemowe są przekonujące, dostępne prace nie wyjaśniają wszystkich aspektów strategicznego zaskoczenia Sił Obronnych Izraela (IDF). Wciąż brakuje analiz dotyczących pracy wywiadu przeciwnika, możliwego zmylenia izraelskiego przywództwa politycznego i wojskowego oraz szerszego kontekstu zimnej wojny.

3

Post-War Reconstruction of Cities (Reconstruction of Baba Amr Neighbourhood in the City of Homs, Syria)

Zin Eddin Mozahem

Builder

|

2024

|

R.28, nr 5

71--77

EN

The research discusses the issue of reconstruction after wars. The paper presents theoretical ideas about reconstruction after wars, including but not limited to the impact of wars on the urban environment, the reconstruction strategies and trends in architecture after wars, the principles of reconstruction of the physical structure of buildings, and urban sustainability in post-war reconstruction operations. The concepts are illustrated through case studies of post-war city reconstruction experiences, such as the Baba Amr – Al Sultanyia – Gouber neighbourhood, which could constitute an introduction and a model for presenting a future vision of reconstructing destroyed areas in Syria.

PL

Niniejsza praca porusza problematykę odbudowy po wojnach. W artykule przedstawiono teoretyczne koncepcje dotyczące odbudowy powojennej, m.in.: wpływ wojen na środowisko miejskie, strategie i tendencje odbudowy po wojnach w architekturze, zasady odbudowy konstrukcji budynków, zrównoważony rozwój miast w okresie powojennym. Koncepcje zilustrowano studiami przypadków powojennej odbudowy miast, takich jak np. dzielnica Baba Amr – Al-Sultanyia – Gouber, która może stanowić modelowy przykład przyszłej wizji odbudowy zniszczonych obszarów w Syrii.

4

Estimation of the hydraulic parameters by using an alternative vertical electrical sounding technique: case study from semiarid Khanasser valley region, Northern Syria

Asfahani Jamal

Acta Geophysica

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2023

|

Vol. 71, no. 2

997--1013

EN

Vertical electrical sounding technique (VES) is proposed as an alternative geoelectrical approach to estimate the hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity parameters related to the Quaternary aquifer of semiarid Khanasser valley, Northern Syria. Schlumberger array is used for carrying out the VES measurements, where three of them were made just near three existing boreholes for comparison. The conjoint analysis of the pumping tests results from the available three drilled boreholes, and the geoelectrical Dar-Zarrouk of transverse resistance (R) and longitudinal conductance (S) parameters resulted from VES interpretations allows to obtain the both parameters of the hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity Quaternary aquifer. Empirically calibrated relationship between hydraulic conductivity evaluated by using the available pumping test results and the transverse resistance (R) of the Quaternary aquifer is derived for those three boreholes. A very good agreement is noticed between the measured hydraulic conductivity from pumping tests and the one computed geophysically. The constructed calibrated relationship is thereafter applied to extrapolate and estimate both the hydraulic conductivity and the transmissivity parameters in thirty-four measured VES points in the Khanasser valley study area. Such an extrapolation allows deriving and characterizing the spatial variation maps of hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity in the study area. The acquired geophysical results give useful information, particularly on the groundwater potentiality of the study region. The developed alternative approach is successfully applied in the study area and can therefore be practiced for characterizing similar semiarid environments worldwide.

5

Methodology of Russia’s hard hit on Syria

Wojnarowska-Szpucha Sylwia

Przegląd Nauk o Obronności

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2021

|

R. 6, Nr 12

42--49

EN

Objectives: The aim of this study is to determine the activities of different countries in the context of the Syrian conflict. Methods: The following research methods and techniques have proven to be useful: starting material analysis, cause-effect analysis, scientific observation. Results: An analysis of the available literature has shown that the Russian Federation has refrained from direct participation in the war in Syria since the beginning of the war. First, it supplied arms and ammunition to Syria to support the Assad regime, and in Damascus and other areas, Russian trainers were deployed to support Assad’s war efforts. But in the fall of 2015, when Assad’s government forces were severely weakened, Russia began to implement direct and open military support on the scale of a world power with global ambitions. Conclusions: The political-military measures of the Russian Federation had enormous destabilizing effects on the entire region of the Middle East. The strategic interests of many countries in the region are under threat, and the Russian Federation has become and will continue to be an important player in the Middle East. Russia’s engagement in Syria is part of the Russian Federation’s multifaceted policy aimed at achieving various objectives. The Russian operation in Syria is Russia’s return to the Middle East Games as an important military and political player with the aim of strengthening its own position and weakening the position of the United States. With its military actions in Syria, Russia has reaffirmed its influence in the Middle East region.

6

Alternative vertical electrical sounding technique for hydraulic parameters estimation of the quaternary basaltic aquifer in Deir Al Adas area, Yarmouk Basin, Southern Syria

Asfahani J., Al-Fares W.

Acta Geophysica

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2021

|

Vol. 69, no. 5

1901--1918

EN

An alternative geoelectrical approach, based on using the technique of vertical electrical sounding (VES), is developed and proposed to estimate the hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity parameters of the quaternary fractured basalt aquifer (B1Q1) in Deir Al-Adas region, Southern Syria. Nineteen VES points were executed by Schlumberger configuration, where three of them were made near the available boreholes for comparison. Hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity aquifer parameters are obtained by analyzing conjointly the available pumping test results from the existing boreholes and the electrical Dar-Zarrouk (R) parameters from VES data. An empirical equation between the transverse resistance (R), resulting from VES interpretation, and hydraulic conductivity determined from pumping test is established to estimate geophysically hydraulic conductivity of the Quaternary basalt aquifer. A closed agreement is obtained between the computed hydraulic conductivity and the one determined from pumping test. The established calibrated relationship is consequently used to extrapolate and estimate the transmissivity and the hydraulic conductivity parameters in all VES points, where geoelectrical measurements have been carried out. This extrapolation allows characterizing and deriving the spatial maps of hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity and other related hydrogeophysical parameters in the study area. The integrated acquired results give insights, particularly on the groundwater potentiality of the study region, direction of groundwater flux, and plausible lava directions flux. The resulting maps are important in future modeling processes oriented towards better exploiting of the aquifers. The proposed alternative technique is successfully applied in the study area and can be therefore applied for studying similar basaltic environments worldwide.

7

Impas syryjski i jego wpływ na bezpieczeństwo w regionie : problematyka uchodźców na obszarze Unii Europejskiej

Moussa Suhel Samuel, Pacer Małgorzata

Studia Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego

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2020

|

R. 10, Nr 17

147--156

PL

Migracja i uchodźstwo nie są nowymi zjawiskami we współczesnym świecie. Jednak ich skala, a także dynamika wzrosły na przestrzeni ostatnich lat. Kryzys migracyjny przybrał na sile w roku 2015 i stał się przedmiotem większego zainteresowania badaczy z różnych dyscyplin naukowych. Od tego czasu media nieustannie informują o fali „uchodźców” przybywających do brzegów Europy, a w szczególności do Włoch czy przedostających się z Turcji do Grecji i zmierzających w głąb Europy. Ukazują przymusową wędrówkę ludności w poszukiwaniu schronienia przed wojnami czy prześladowaniami na różnym tle. Do tego dochodzą nieporozumienia związane z przyjęciem uchodźców na teren krajów Unii Europejskiej oraz konflikty w krajach sąsiednich wywołane napływem ludności syryjskiej. Celem artykułu jest ocena wpływu sytuacji w Syrii na bezpieczeństwo regionu Bliskiego Wschodu i Europy. W artykule została zastosowana metoda analiza danych zastanych (desk research). Analizie poddane zostały publikacje ekspertów oraz strony internetowe, zarówno w języku arabskim, jak i polskim.

EN

Migration and refugees are not new phenomena in the modern world. However, their scale and dynamics have increased in recent years. The migration crisis intensified in 2015 and became the subject of greater interest to researchers from various scientific disciplines. Since then, the media has been constantly reporting on the wave of “refugees” on the shores of Europe, and in particular Italy, moving from Turkey to Greece and heading deep into Europe. They show the forced migration of people in search of shelter from wars or persecutions of various backgrounds. The article uses the back-up data analysis method (desk research). The publications of experts and websites, both in Arabic and Polish, were analyzed. Additionally, there are misunderstandings related to the admission of refugees to the territory of the European Union and conflicts in neighboring countries caused by the influx of Syrian people.

8

Game of Proxies – Towards a new model of warfare: Experiences from the CAR, Libya, Mali, Syria, and Ukraine

Kozera Cyprian Aleksander, Bernat Paweł, Gürer Cüneyt, Popławski Błażej, Sözer Mehmet Alper

Security and Defence Quarterly

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2020

|

Vol. 31, No. 4

77--97

EN

The objective of the study is to carry out a meaningful comparison that demonstrates the similarities and differences of various conflict theatres where proxy forces were employed. The analyses of the discussed cases focused on different aspects of the conflict and nature of the proxy use. The analyses presented on the following pages were conducted on the basis of the literature on the subject, governmental research and reports, and supporting sources reporting recent developments that complemented academic sources. Various non-state actors such as ethnic militias, paramilitary units, and private military companies have become more and more visible on contemporary battlegrounds. Modern states employ those actors to further their objectives, as this limits their own political and financial costs. This increasingly visible phenomenon points to an emerging new model of warfare where state actors are relying ever more on proxies of various character and nature. It is highly likely that any future conflict will be characterised by a proxy-based model of warfare, which will consist of a limited footprint made by regular forces (or none at all) and, consequently, the extended use of proxies supported by special forces. Because such an approach is less costly, proxies will be more often employed by low-budget states, previously reluctant to carry out such costly military endeavours. Denying the actions and affiliations of these proxies will inevitably follow and, in turn, a lack of political accountability and responsibility for the conflict’s outcome.

9

Impact of distributive justice on the trust climate among Middle Eastern employees

Alshaabani Ayman, Oláh Judit, Popp József, Zaien Samir

Polish Journal of Management Studies

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2020

|

Vol. 21, No. 1

34--47

EN

Having a positive trust climate and organizational distributive justice is essential for any organization. Many studies have found that both trust and organizational justice have a direct positive impact on organizational performance. However, the relationship between them has not been considered widely, especially in the Middle East. Therefore, the study aims to examine the relationship between organizational distributive justice and the trust climate among the employees in three Middle Eastern countries and to find out what demographic variables affect this relationship. The sample of the study consisted of 190 employees who came from three countries, namely, Syria, Egypt, and Turkey. To achieve the purpose of the study, a questionnaire of 20 items was sent online to employees. Later descriptive analysis methods and Pearson correlation were used to achieve the purposes of this study. The study found that there was a strong positive relationship between organizational distributive justice and the trust climate. Besides, there was a significant difference in organizational distributive justice when it was related to work experience. There were also statistically significant differences in trust in the supervisor, related to age; moreover, there were significant differences in trust in the organization and co-workers depending on work experience level, however, gender did not show any significant differences.

PL

Posiadanie atmosfery pozytywnego zaufania i sprawiedliwości dystrybucyjnej organizacji jest niezbędne dla każdej organizacji. Wiele badań wykazało, że zarówno zaufanie, jak i sprawiedliwość organizacyjna mają bezpośredni pozytywny wpływ na wyniki organizacji. Jednak relacje pomiędzy nimi nie były szeroko rozważane, szczególnie na Bliskim Wschodzie. Dlatego badanie ma na celu zbadanie związku między organizacyjną sprawiedliwością dystrybucyjną a atmosferą zaufania wśród pracowników w trzech krajach Bliskiego Wschodu oraz ustalenie, jakie zmienne demograficzne wpływają na ten związek. Próba badawcza obejmowała 190 pracowników pochodzących z trzech krajów, a mianowicie z Syrii, Egiptu i Turcji. Aby osiągnąć cel badania, do pracowników wysłano kwestionariusz zawierający 20 pytań. Późniejsze metody analizy opisowej i korelacja Pearsona zostały wykorzystane do osiągnięcia celów tego badania. Badanie wykazało, że istnieje silny pozytywny związek między organizacyjną sprawiedliwością dystrybucyjną a atmosferą zaufania. Poza tym istniała znacząca różnica w organizacyjnej sprawiedliwości dystrybucyjnej, gdy była ona związana z doświadczeniem zawodowym. Istniały również statystycznie istotne różnice w zaufaniu do przełożonego, związane z wiekiem; ponadto istniały znaczne różnice w zaufaniu do organizacji i współpracowników w zależności od poziomu doświadczenia zawodowego, jednak płeć nie wykazywała znaczących różnic.

10

Space and time variability of meteorological drought in Syria

Mohammed Safwan, Alsafadi Karam, Al-Awadhi Talal, Sherief Youssef, Harsanyie Endre, El Kenawy Ahmed M.

Acta Geophysica

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2020

|

Vol. 68, no. 6

1877--1898

EN

This study assesses the spatial and temporal characteristics (e.g., frequency, intensity, spatial extent) of meteorological drought in Syria. Specifcally, drought was characterized using the observed rainfall data from 36 rain gauges spanning the period between 1990 and 2010 and covering the main climatic regions in Syria (i.e., Mediterranean, arid, semiarid and mountainous). Meteorological drought was assessed using the standardized precipitation index (SPI) at 12-month timescale, allowing for detecting the impacts of climate variability on agricultural droughts. The dominant modes of drought were defned using an S-mode of the principal component analysis. To assess the links between meteorological drought evolution and vegetation greening in Syria, the time series of SPI were correlated with the normalized diference vegetation index (NDVI). Time series of NDVI were retrieved from the remotely sensed National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Advanced Very High-Resolution Radiometer (NOAA/AVHRR) sensor at a spatial resolution of 25 km for the common period 1990–2010. Trend analysis suggests a statistically signifcant increase in the frequency and intensity of drought at 12-month timescale. The observed intensifcation of meteorological drought is mostly associated with the increase in mild and moderate droughts, relative to extremes and very extreme droughts. Results also suggest a statistically signifcant decrease (p<0.05) in vegetation greening over Syria during the study period, especially in the eastern parts of the country. Our results demonstrate that the decrease in vegetation cover can directly be linked to the anomalous drought events, with Pearson’ r coefcients generally above 0.6. This dependency was more highlighted during wintertime for the Mediterranean vegetation and in northeastern portions of the country. Overall, the increase in the frequency and intensity of meteorological drought, combined with a series of unrest and political instability, have drastic impacts on the agricultural sector in Syria, with serious implications for crop yield

11

DIY (do it yourself) weapons in 2011-2016 conflict in Syria

Gruca K., Zielichowski A.

Scientific Journal of the Military University of Land Forces

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2018

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Vol. 50, No. 3(189)

43--56

EN

The article presents a phenomenon accompanying the conflict in Syria, involving the production and use of homemade weapons. Based on publications as well as multimedia materials published on the Internet the authors describe homemade weapons. The advantages and disadvantages of their use in tactical operations were identified in the form of conclusions.

12

Circumstances of the rise of the so-called Islamic State according to Patrick Cockburn’s perspective

Czapnik S.

Scientific Journal of the Military University of Land Forces

|

2018

|

Vol. 50, No. 2(188)

5--18

EN

The aim of this article is to analyze the rise of the so-called Islamic State in the perspective of a Middle Eastern and commentator for “The Independent”, Patrick Cockburn, who also publishes in the “London Review of Books. The text begins with a sketch of the geo-political determinants for the spread of the Islamic holy war, i.e. jihad. Then, it focuses on the disturbing phenomenon of sectarianism – directed mainly at the Shia branch of Islam – the attitudes of extremist Sunni preachers. The third chapter presents the complex combination of events that has contributed to the growth of extremist tendencies in Iraq. The subject of further deliberations is the conversion of the initially secular resistance to the regime of Bashar al-Assad in Syria into a civil war, in which jihadists are the main opponents of the president.

13

Ludność syryjska w cieniu konfliktu zbrojnego

Maciechowska Magdalena

Security Review

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2017

|

nr 2(3)

23--30

EN

The subject of this article is the conflict in Syria - an attempt to pinpoint the reasons that led to its outbreak, together with the situation of the Syrian people and help as it was given.

14

Trendy migracyjne w XXI wieku

Nickel A., Nowak A.

Roczniki Studenckie Akademii Wojsk Lądowych

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2017

|

R. 1

107--120

PL

Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie obecnych trendów migracyjnych, głównie na terenie Europy, co jest spowodowane eskalacją Państwa Islamskiego oraz kryzysem na Ukrainie. W szczególności te dwa czynniki doprowadziły do zmian kierunków migracji i napływu Syryjczyków do państw Europy Zachodniej oraz Ukraińców w znacznej większości do Polski. Obserwując wybierane przez migrantów destynacje można zauważyć zależność, iż najczęściej są to państwa o wysokich zapomogach socjalnych, większych możliwościach znalezienia pracy oraz wyższych pensjach. Jednakże narastające migracje ujawniają także negatywne aspekty dla państw przyjmujących migrantów. Dochodzi do wzrostu zagrożeń, związanych z różnicami kulturalnymi czy religijnymi, a także do nasilenia się nielegalnych migracji.

EN

The purpose of this article is presenting current migration trends, mainly in Europe. It is caused by escalation of Islamic State and crisis in Ukraine. Especially these two elements have made some changes in migration directions. After the establishment of Islamic State and crisis between Russia and Ukraine, took place increase in migration from Syria to countries in West Europe and from Ukraine to Poland. By observing main destinations, which are chosen by migrants, it shows dependence, that generally they choose countries, where there are: high social assistance, higher possibilities to find a job and high salaries. However increasing migrations induce negative aspects for host countries. In these countries threats are growing, what is connected with difference in culture or religion and illegal migrations.

15

Syrian society on the threshold of freedom the unfulfilled dream of democracy

Bodziany M.

Zeszyty Naukowe / Wyższa Szkoła Oficerska Wojsk Lądowych im. gen. T. Kościuszki

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2016

|

Nr 2

5--18

EN

Why did the revolution in Syria happen? That is the question the answer to which leaves no illusions. The Syrian Revolution began, because the society motivated by disturbances in other Arab countries wanted to break free from the dictatorship of Bashar al-Assad. It was to give an opportunity to the young generation of the Syrians for a better life, and to change this beautiful and inhabited by hospitable and friendly people country into the ‘oasis’ of peace and prosperity. Today it is already clear that the Syrian ‘dream of democracy’ has not been fulfilled and the society was unable to establish a new order. The revolution in this state turned out to be other than those, which took place in almost all the Arab States and some Muslim ones. It was even different from the Libyan uprising that changed into the civil war. This rush turned into a blood slaughter - a civil war on the scale hitherto unprecedented, and its implications drive to the reflection on the future of this state. The purpose of this article is the analysis of sources of change in Syria, as well as the prediction of opportunities to rebuild its statehood.

16

Sytuacja Libanu wobec konfliktu zbrojnego w Syrii

Głogowska P.

Zeszyty Naukowe Ruchu Studenckiego

|

2016

|

Nr 2

95--106

PL

Stabilność polityczna Libanu jest mocno skorelowana z jego położeniem geopolitycznym, czyniąc go uzależnionym sytuacji w państwach sąsiednich Syrii i Izraelu. W artykule zostały przedstawione relacje pomiędzy rządami w Bejrucie i Damaszku, w kontekście toczącej się w Syrii wojny domowej. Historyczne uwarunkowane zależności tych krajów mają obecnie odzwierciedlenie w relacjach obu państw. W artykule zaprezentowano również wydarzenia związane z arabską wiosną oraz jej reperkusje, które spowodowały destabilizację Syrii, tworząc tym samym zagrożenie dla bezpieczeństwa Libanu.

EN

The situation in Lebanon is strongly correlated with geographical location that also makes the country dependant on its neighbours - Syria and Israel. The article describes the relations between the government in Beirut and Damascus. Nowadays, the historical interdependence among countries mentioned above has the reflection with strong links between these states. The article also presents circumstances related to Arab Spring and its impact on civil war triggers in Syria.

17

Rola terenów rekreacyjnych w różnych strefach klimatycznych - na przykładzie Syrii

Klimowicz J., Nawrocki R.

Środowisko Mieszkaniowe

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2016

|

nr 16

57--65

PL

Zmiany klimatyczne zachodzące na przestrzeni ostatnich lat na całym globie doprowadziły do występowania różnych anomalii pogodowych, takich jak susze czy fale upałów. Jednocześnie zmniejsza się ilości średniorocznych opadów. W aglomeracjach miejskich obserwowane jest pogłębiające się zjawisko Miejskie j Wyspy Ciepła. Istotą projektowania zarówno urbanistycznego, jak i architektonicznego stało się jak najlepsze zabezpieczenie miejsc zamieszkania i pracy przed niekorzystnym wpływam anomalii pogodowych poprzez tworzenie terenów zieleni i rekreacji. Ma to na celu minimalizowanie niekorzystnego wpływu zmian klimatu na człowieka. Dobrym przykładem stosowania obszarów zieleni zarówno w obiektach budowlanych jak też w założeniach urbanistycznych może być Syria, kraj o jakże odziemnym klimacie, niestety dzisiaj niszczonym przez wojnę. Zarówno w historycznej zabudowie, jak i w nowoczesnych projektach zieleń jest istotna. W XX wieku wielu polskich architektów wyjechało do Syrii aby tam projektować i realizować. W ich projektach możemy spotkać tereny rekreacyjne mające na calu poprawę warunków klimatycznych oraz życia mieszkańców.

EN

Recent climate changes around the globe, led to the occurrence of various weather anomalies such as droughts or heat waves. At the same time it reduces the amount of average annual rainfalls. We can observe continuously growing the Urban Heat Island effect in the developed urban areas. The main goal of both urban and architectural design is to protect the places of residence and work against adverse weather anomalies, by the creation of green and recreation areas. This is to minimize the adverse impact of climate change on humans. Minimizing the adverse impact of climate change to the human is aimed at it. Syria can be a good example of using green areas in both buildings as well as urban developed areas, a country with a very different climate than Poland, unfortunately completely devastated by the war. Greenery is treated as a very important element in historical building as well as new ones. In the twentieth century many Polish architects went to Syria to design in the Syrian architect companies to design. In many of their projects, we can find recreation areas aimed at fighting the improvement of climatic conditions and living standards.

18

Baza logistyczna w Tartus jako główny element zaopatrywania sił rosyjskich działających w rejonie Morza Śródziemnego i Syrii

Miśnik B.

Gospodarka Materiałowa i Logistyka

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2016

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nr 12

469--481

PL

Z chwilą wybuchu wojny domowej w Syrii wzrosło znaczenie rosyjskiej bazy logistycznej w Tartus. Bazą tą jest 720 Punkt Zabezpieczenia Materiałowo-Technicznego Marynarki Wojennej Federacji Rosyjskiej. Od początku wojny domowej w Syrii, od 2011 roku Federacja Rosyjska prowadzi działania pomocowe dla syryjskiego prezydenta Baszara el – Asada w celu wzmocnienia jego pozycji. Od 2013 r. baza w Tartus jest ważnym elementem w zaopatrywaniu okrętów i zespołów okrętów działających w rejonie Morza Śródziemnego, a od 2015 roku zaopatrywania kontyngentu lotniczego Sił Powietrznych Federacji Rosyjskiej w Syrii. W artykule przedstawiono miejsce i rolę jaką odgrywają okręty desantowe i jednostki transportowe uzbrojenia w dostawach techniki wojskowej i środków bojowych do Syrii. Dokonano również oceny możliwości załadunkowych jednostek transportowych realizujących swoje zadania w ramach „syryjskiego ekspresu”.

EN

Simultaneously with the outbreak of civil war in Syria significance of Russian logistic base in Tartus had grown up. This is 720th Technical and Supply Point from Russian Federation Navy. From the very beginning of the war RF has conduct support for Syrian President strengthening his position. Since 2013 the Base is a significant factor for supplying ships, executing their tasks at Mediterranean Sea. Moreover, this facility ensures support for Russian Air Contingent in Syria. This article describes role and responsibilities of amphibious and transport ships in service support to Syria. Additionally, the author asses cargo capabilities of shipping means, fulfilling their tasks as “Syrian express”.

19

Using Vertical Electrical Soundings for Characterizing Hydrogeological and Tectonic Settings in Deir El-Adas Area, Yarmouk Basin, Syria

Al-Fares W.

Acta Geophysica

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2016

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Vol. 64, no. 3

610--632

EN

The present study is aimed at characterizing the subsurface geological and tectonic structure in Deir El-Adas area, by using Vertical Electrical Sounding survey (VES) and hydrogeological investigations, in order to determine the causes of the failure for the majority of the wells drilled in the area. The survey data was treated in three different approaches including direct VES inversion, pseudo-2D method and horizontal profiling, in order to maximize the reliability of the data interpretation. The results revealed the presence of a local faulted anticline structure at the top of the Paleogene formation, underneath the basaltic outcrops where Deir El-Adas village is situated. The appearance of this subsurface anticline structure has complicated the local hydrogeological situation, and most likely led to limitation of the groundwater recharge in the area. Moreover, the performed piezometric and discharge maps indicated the presence of a notable groundwater watershed, in addition to feeble water productivity of the wells drilled adjacent to Deir ElAdas, mostly related to the subsurface geological and tectonic settings in the area.

20

On Russia’s motives behind its military intervention in Syria

Ilnicki Marek

Security and Defence Quarterly

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2015

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Vol. 9, No. 4

56--77

EN

This article analyses the causes of Russia’s military intervention in Syria as well as the main motives behind its unanticipated decision to get involved. Since the launch of the military operations (i.e. since 30th September, 2015), European and American experts have speculated a lot on the causes and aims of the Russian involvement. This article takes into consideration only the most likely and well-grounded reasons behind Russia’s military operation. While neither of them precludes or contradicts the others, an attempt has been made to narrow down the list to the key determinants, considering the high costs of the operation and the risks involved. Getting an insight into the underlying reasons can provide reasonable grounds on which to forecast possible scenarios for Syria and offer “political” approaches to settling the conflicts in the Near East. This article argues in favour of the geopolitical nature of the motives behind the military operation in Syria, and it provides a logical rationale for Russia’s striving to regain the position of a world power with a say in resolving vital conflicts in the region and, at the same time, to draw global attention away from the Crimean Crisis and from the failure of the Kremlin’s policy in Ukraine, and, last but not least, to overcome its international isolation following the annexation of Crimea.