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1

Rola wirowości potencjalnej w kontekście oddziaływań między stratosferą a troposferą i jej wpływ na ujemne anomalie termiczne w Iranie w chłodnej porze roku

Mirian Mina, Karampour Mostafa, Ghaedi Sohrab

Przegląd Geofizyczny

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2025

|

Z. 1-2

51--667

PL

Niniejsze badanie analizuje rolę anomalii stratosferycznych i troposferycznych w występowaniu niskich temperatur powietrza w Iranie podczas sezonu chłodnego przy wykorzystaniu indeksu wirowości potencjalnej (PV) w latach 1960–2010. Na podstawie 20% zanotowanych przypadków najniższych wartości temperatury zidentyfikowano rozległe przestrzennie fale chłodu w okresie od września do marca. Dni charakteryzujące się najniższymi wartościami temperatur posłużyły jako studia przypadków w celu analizy warunków cyrkulacyjnych determinujących wystąpienie silnego ochłodzenia. Oceniono współzmienność z wysokością geopotencjału na poziomach 1000 i 500 hPa oraz wirowość potencjalną na poziomach 50 i 500 hPa, a także na powierzchni izotropowej 330 K. W celu identyfikacji źródeł anomalii PV przeanalizowano także wilgotność właściwą na poziomie 700 hPa oraz dynamikę ruchów pionowych powietrza na poziomach 500 i 1000 hPa. Uzyskane wyniki wykazały, że anomalie wirowości potencjalnej w stratosferze oraz jej intruzje w dolne warstwy troposfery były głównymi czynnikami determinującymi występowanie fal chłodu w Iranie w okresie od września do marca.

EN

This study investigates the role of stratosphere-troposphere anomalies in the occurrence of widespread extreme low temperatures in Iran’s cold season using the potential vorticity index from 1960 to 2010. Based on the lowest 20% of extreme temperatures, widespread cold periods during the cold half of the year (September-March) were identified, and the most severe period was selected. Days with widespread very low temperatures were chosen as case studies for each season to analyze the dynamical and synoptic patterns governing the severe cold period. Synoptic circulation patterns, including geopotential height at 1000 and 500 hPa levels, and dynamical patterns such as potential vorticity at 50 and 500 hPa levels and on the 330 K isentropic surface, were plotted and analyzed. Specific humidity at the 700 hPa level and vertical velocity at 500 and 1000 hPa levels were also examined to identify the origin of potential vorticity anomalies. The results revealed that dynamical anomalies of stratospheric potential vorticity and its downward intrusion into the troposphere were the main factors behind the occurrence of widespread extreme low temperatures in Iran’s cold season. This highlights the role of stratosphere-troposphere exchanges in the occurrence of widespread extreme low temperatures during the studied period.

2

Iranian cyber capabilities as a tool of domestic and foreign policy

Stachoń Monika

Zeszyty Naukowe SGSP / Szkoła Główna Służby Pożarniczej

|

2024

|

Nr 89 (tom 2)

267--290

EN

Iran is among the most advanced countries in terms of cyber capabilities. Activities in the digital sphere have both offensive and defensive dimensions and are directed both outward and inward. This article attempts to systematize information on Iran’s cyber capabilities, both internal and external. The purpose of the article is to discuss the challenges to individual states and the international community as a whole posed by Iranian activities in the digital sphere. The question the author seeks to answer in the article is how Tehran uses the digital tools it possesses to implement its security strategy. The author used theoretical methods related to the analysis and criticism of available sources, such as reports of technology companies and research institutes, intelligence documents, and legal acts. She also used a case study method, which enabled it to examine specific cases of Iranian cyber activities to find answers to the question of the strategic importance of cyberspace for the Iranian government.

3

Spatiotemporal relationship of temperature and precipitation over southern coasts of the Caspian Sea based on quantile regression methods

Solaimani Karim, Ahmadi Sedigheh Bararkhanpour

Acta Geophysica

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2024

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Vol. 72, no. 2

1127--1142

EN

Temperature and precipitation are significant environmental variables that can lead to catastrophic climatic disasters. The intensity of precipitation increases with increasing temperature under humid conditions. As a result, investigating the trend and relationship between precipitation and temperature is important in a wide range of industries such as trade, agriculture, and ecological analysis. Quantile regression techniques were used in this study to determine the effect of temperature variables on different amounts of precipitation during a 36-year duration (1984-2019) in Mazandaran Province of Iran. According to the findings, heavy rainfall increased significantly in February and April while decreasing in May, June, and September. All minimum and maximum temperature measurements, however, increased significantly. Moreover, the positive and negative effects of temperature variables were higher in the upper quantiles of precipitation, so the most negative effect of the minimum temperature were identified in the northwestern regions and in the warm and cold months of the year, but the most positive effect were detected in the north. In contrast, it was revealed that the north and northwest regions, respectively, were most negatively impacted by maximum temperature and most positively impacted by heavy rainfall. Finally, in a long period, high temperatures have not shown a positive effect on precipitation, and it is different according to spatial and temporal changes.

4

Groundwater spring potential prediction using a deep-learning algorithm

Moughani Solmaz Khazaei, Osmani Abdolbaset, Nohani Ebrahim, Khoshtinat Saeed, Jalilian Tahere, Askari Zahra, Heddam Salim, Tiefenbacher John P., Hatamiafkoueieh Javad

Acta Geophysica

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2024

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Vol. 72, no. 2

1033--1054

EN

Information about water resources is crucial for sustainable development, and this issue is considered to be one of the most important concerns worldwide due to rapid industrialization and population growth. Countries in the semiarid region of the western Asia, like Iran, are dependent on groundwater resources so access to these resources is vital. This study maps surface spring potential on the Nourabad-Koohdasht Plain of Iran using a deep-learning algorithm called convolutional neural network (CNN), and the result was compared to predictions made with five advanced data-mining models: logistic model tree (LMT), LMT hybridized with bagging (BA-LMT), LMT hybridized with dagging (DA-LMT), LMT hybridized with random subspace (RS-LMT), and LMT hybridized with AdaBoost (AB-LMT). Frequency ratio was used to assess the strengths of relationships of each subclass layer to groundwater presence and evidential belief function revealed their effects on model uncertainty. The locations of 2463 springs were determined and showed that the northern part of the plain has the highest groundwater potential based on the density of springs. The data representing each of the spring locations were used for prediction modeling. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) and area under the ROC curve (AUC) were used to evaluate the strengths of the predictions produced by the models. The results show that CNN (AUC = 0.885) provided the best prediction of spring locations. AB-LMT (AUC = 0.877) was second best, and BA-LMT (AUC = 0.876), DA-LMT (AUC = 0.856), RS-LMT (AUC = 0.846), and the standalone LMT model (AUC = 0.827) followed in rank. It can be concluded that the hybrid LMT models increased the predictive strength of the standalone LMT model when used to predict spring locations. These hybrid modeling methods may be used to improve sustainable groundwater management in the study region and in other regions as well.

5

Developing a new multi-criteria decision-making for flood prioritization of sub-watersheds using concept of D numbers

Sepehri Mehdi, Linh Nguyen Thi Thuy, Pouya Hadi Nazri, Bahramloo Reza, Sadeghian Jalal, Ghermezcheshme Bagher, Talebi Ali, Peyrovan Hamidreza, Thanh Phong Nguyen

Acta Geophysica

|

2024

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Vol. 72, no. 3

2027--2039

EN

Floods are one of the most dangerous natural disasters that humanity has ever faced. In this study, a modified version of D number technique as a suitable form of multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) approaches was proposed to prioritize flooding in the Sad-Kalan watershed of Iran using some flood related criteria. The proposed method can overcome some shortcomings and uncertainties of the existing MCDM methods. In order to evaluate the performance of the method regarding flood prioritization, its results were compared with the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) technique as mostly frequently used MCDM method. The findings demonstrate that the modified version of D number method provides better results than AHP method. In spite of inherent advantages of D number method, the advantages of the proposed method in relation to existing MCDM are as follows: 1- considering the local and global importance of used criteria, 2- reducing the uncertainty in decision makers’ judgments using employing the concept of Picture fuzzy-AHP, 3- considering the degree of consistency in evaluation of decision makers into calculations. Furthermore, the method is flexible and can be used in any region of the world.

6

Palaeobiogeography of Late Bajocian–Tithonian ammonites of northeastern Iran

Majidifard Mahmoud Reza

Geotourism / Geoturystyka

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2023

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nr 1-2 (72-73)

46--46

EN

Jurassic rocks are widely distributed and superbly exposed in the Alborz Mts. (northern Iran) and Koppeh Dagh (northeastern Iran). The Lower Jurassic and large parts of the Middle Jurassicare characterized by a thick siliciclastic succession, whereas the Upper Bajocian to Tithonian rocks are predominantly carbonates, which represent a platform, slope and basin system. The Upper Bajocian-Tithonian ammonite faunas the NNE Iran are mostly of Submediterranean affinity, but elements of Subboreal, Mediterranean, and Ethiopian provinces are occasionally intermingled. Palaeobiogeographically the Late Bajocian to Bathonian ammonites belong to Submediterranean Province, as elsewhere in north and central Iran. This is supported by the occurrence of ammonites such as Garantiana and Morphoceras and some cosmopolitan taxa such as Cadomites and Oxycerites. In order to unravel the origin of the faunal elements and their migration routes, the relationship of the ammonite fauna of Iran to that of other regions was evaluated. On the whole, at the species level, the Toarcian to Early Bajocian ammonite faunas of northern and central Iran show a close relationship to that of northwestern Europe. A characteristic feature of this fauna is the scarcity of Phylloceratidae (accounting for less than 1% up to 3%) and the absence of Lytoceratidae. Remarkably, from Late Bathonian onward to Kimmeridgian, Phylloceratidae account for more than 50% of the ammonites fauna. Palaeogeographic reconstructions show the position of the Iranian plate (North and Central Iran) during the Middle Jurassic time at the southern margin of Eurasia at a palaeo-latitude of around 30° N which rather corresponds to European regions (Enay & Cariou, 1997). The open migration routes across pericontinental shelf seas along the northern Tethyan margin that were approximately parallel to palaeo-latitudes may explain the strong affinities of the Late Bajocian–Bathonian ammonites of northern and Central Iran to those of the Submediterranean Province. The Callovian ammonite fauna has a typical northwest Tethyan character, and belong to the Submediterranean faunal province (Seyed-Emami et al., 2013), and are largely dominated by Phylloceratidae ammonites. These pelagic taxa that preferred open oceanic conditions are accompanied consistently by Perisphinctidae, Reineckeiidae, Oppeliidae (Hecticoceratinae), Macrocephalitidae , Tulitidae, Aspidoceratidae (Parawedekindia, Peltoceras). On the other hand, this is supported by the occurrence of Submediterranean ammonites such as Macrocephalites, Pachyceras, and some cosmopolitan taxa such as Hecticoceras and Reineckeia. Some taxa from the Oxfordian- Kimmeridgian belong to the Western Tethys Province (Sequeirosia and Passendorferia) or Subboreal Province (Cardioceras). It is remarkable that, besides some cosmopolitan ammonites, there is no direct connection with faunas from southwestern Iran, western India and the southern Tethys. Finally, the Tithonian ammonite faunas of northeastern Iran are mostly of Submediterranean affinity (Seyed-Emami et al., 2013). However elements of the Mediterranean faunal provinces occasionally occur. In order to unravel the origin of the faunal elements and their migration routes, the relationship of the ammonite fauna of Iran to that of other regions need to be analysed in the future. Especially the appearance of several allegedly regionally restricted Ataxioceratidae such as Phanerostephanus, Nannostephanus, Nothostephans and the Oppeliidae as Oxylenticeras, which occur in Ethiopian Province (Page, 2008) is of great palaeobiogeographical interest.

7

Coevolution of Paleo-Tethys and Rheic: New tectonic constraints from Iran and Turkey

Chu Yang, Wan Bo, Lin Wei, Allen Mark B., Talebian Morteza, Uysal Ibrahim, Xin Guangyao

Geotourism / Geoturystyka

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2023

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nr 1-2 (72-73)

15--15

EN

In the Paleozoic, one large ocean once separated the Eurasia of the north and the Gondwana of the south, but it has two names, Paleo-Tethys and Rheic, suggesting different tectonic history. The Paleo-Tethys represent the ocean from east Asia to Middle East regions and vanished in Early Mesozoic, while the Rheic existed across the Europe and finally closed in Carboniferous. The two oceans coevolved for a long time, but the interaction and mutual effect at subduction and collision stages are not well understood. Initiation processes of ocean spreading, subduction and collision are crucial in plate tectonics, so resolving the timing for these turning points may greatly enhanced the precision and accuracy of reconstruction of the two oceans, especially for the western Paleo-Tethys. In NE Iran, we find that all the Paleozoic clastic rocks record two major zircon U-Pb age groups peaked at ~800 Ma and ~600 Ma. Consistency in age patterns show a dominant provenance from Neoproterozoic basement of the north Gondwana and a long-lasting passive margin sedimentation after the spreading of the Paleo-Tethys. This environment was interrupted by initial collision between the Turan (Eurasia) and Central Iran (Gondwana) Blocks with massive coarse clastic deposition, i.e. the protolith of the Mashhad Phyllite, in a peripheral foreland basin on the Paleozoic passive margin. The Mashhad Phyllite yields a striking provenance change from passive margin to active margin. The Paleozoic ages reveal a long-lived subduction zone at the south Turan Block initiated since the latest Ordovician. More importantly, the provenance shift better constrains the initial collision timing with the maximum deposition age of the Mashhad Phyllite (~228 Ma) refining the evolution history of Paleo-Tethys. Based on our new results and previous data, we compare the tectonic history of the Paleo-Tethys in its western segment with eastern Rheic, and further discuss the interaction between the Rheic and Paleo-Tethys. We find existence of a lateral subduction zone plays a crucial rule in initiating new subduction zone after an old oceanic plate vanishes and two continents collides, while a lateral collision can also result into shallowing of subducted slab and preservation of coeval compressional structures. These new insights help us to better interpret the emplacement of high-pressure metamorphic rocks during subduction and subduction zone jump when the Rheic and Paleo-Tethys coevolved.

8

Palaeobiogeography, palaeoecology, and sequence stratigraphy of the Upper Jurassic carbonate succession of the Lar Formation, central Alborz Zone, Iran

Saleh Zahra, Reháková Daniela

Geological Quarterly

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2023

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Vol. 67, No. 2

art. no. 15

EN

Foraminifera, ammonites, and calcareous dinoflagellates were used for stratigraphy and, together with microfacies, for the assessment of the palaeoenvironmental conditions of the Upper Jurassic deposits in the central Alborz Zone of northern Iran. The Lar Formation (Lar Fm.) in the Polur section is of latest Oxfordian to early Kimmeridgian age. The ammonite Subnebrodites planula and the calcareous dinoflagellate Colomisphaera nagyi have been introduced as new biomarkers of the lower Kimmeridgian in the central Neo-Tethys. The distribution of calcareous dinoflagellates reflects possible dispersal routes along a narrow seaway between the western Neo-Tethys and the Alborz Zone in the central Neo-Tethys. The Terebella-Crescentiella associations of the Lar Fm. represent a low-energy setting under dysoxic conditions in the Central Neo-Tethys Ocean. The benthic foraminiferal assemblages in this formation show a high dominance of infaunal taxa and r-selected strategists. This assemblage is reminiscent of eutrophic conditions and low oxygen levels in the lower part of the Lar Fm. Good preservation of the hexactinellid sponges in the upper part of the Lar Fm. also indicates an oxygen-minimum zone. Three third-order depositional sequences can be distinguished in the study area based on six microfacies. Depositional sequence 1 (DS1) is composed mainly of argillaceous limestone and medium- to thick-bedded limestone, corresponding to an outer ramp-to-middle ramp environment. Depositional sequence 2 (DS2) comprises breccia limestone and thick-bedded limestone facies in its lower part and thin-bedded limestone to massive limestone in its upper part. The breccia limestone facies may be associated with subaerial exposure and reworking of previously deposited sediment during a relative sea level fall. The thin-bedded limestone to massive limestone of DS2 consists mainly of bioclastic mudstone to wackestone (outer ramp). These represent an deep-water outer homoclinal ramp facies. Depositional sequence 3 (DS3) consists mainly of massive limestone to thick-bedded limestone with a bioclastic peloidal microbial Crescentiella packstone (middle ramp). The relative stratigraphic positions of DSs1–3 and sequence boundaries in the uppermost Oxfordian to lower Kimmeridgian of the Polur area show a fair match to the upper Oxfordian to lower Kimmeridgian sequences (JOx7, JOx8, JKi1 and JKi2) on the global sea level curve.

9

Półilościowe pomiary zawartości węglanu wapnia w historycznych zaprawach gipsowych, za pomocą fourierowskiej spektroskopii w podczerwieni

Koochakzaei Alireza, Mehrabad Mahsa Saidi, Ajorloo Bahram

Cement Wapno Beton

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2023

|

R. 28, nr 2

68--75

PL

Niniejsza praca, wykorzystuje spektroskopię fourierowską w podczerwieni, do półilościowego pomiaru zawartości węglanu wapnia, w historycznych zaprawach gipsowych. Badano 17 próbek historycznych zapraw gipsowych, związanych z Łukiem Alishāha w Tabriz w Iranie, pochodzących z okresu Ilchanidów. W badaniach, zastosowano spektroskopię fourierowską, rozproszonego odbicia w podczerwieni - DRIFTS [ang. diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy]. Przygotowano zaprawy gipsowe zawierające od 0 do 6,5% kalcytu i zbadano je za pomocą spektrometru FTIR. Krzywą kalibracji przygotowano na podstawie stosunku intensywności pasma 1485 cm-1, związanego z wibracjami wiązań grup węglanowych w kalcycie do intensywności pasma przy 660 cm-1 odpowiadającego wibracjom grupy siarczanowej w gipsie. Obliczenia zawartości węglanu wapnia w badanych historycznych zaprawach gipsowych pokazują, że jego zawartość mieściła się w zakresie 0,12% do 1,08%. Zgodnie z uzyskanymi wynikami można przyjąć, że ze względu na niewielką ilość węglanu wapnia w zaprawach, węglan dostał się do zapraw, jako zanieczyszczenie z gleby, lub w postaci rozpuszczonych soli. Może to wskazywać, że wbrew początkowym przypuszczeniom na temat niektórych z tych zapraw, mieszanka wapna i gipsu nie była używana, jako główny składnik, w ich produkcji.

EN

This paper uses Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy to semi-quantitatively measure the amount of calcium carbonate in historical gypsum mortars. 17 historical mortar samples related to Arch of Alishāh in Tabriz-Iran, belonging to the Ilkhanid period, were evaluated. The methodology used in this study was diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy [DRIFTS]. Gypsum mortars containing 0-6.5% calcite were prepared and analysed using an FTIR spectrometer. The calibration curve was prepared based on the band intensity ratio of 1485 cm-1 related to carbonate vibrations in calcite to 660 cm-1 corresponding to sulphate vibrations in gypsum. Calculating the amount of carbonate in all historical mortars shows the presence of about 0.12 to 1.08% carbonate in gypsum mortar. According to obtained results, it can be acknowledged that due to the meagre amount of carbonate in the mixture of mortars, the existing carbonate has entered the mortar as an impurity through soil or dissolved salts. This can indicate that, contrary to the initial idea about some of these mortars, lime and gypsum mixture was not used as the main component in the making these mortars.

10

Cyberwarfare against Critical Infrastructures: Russia and Iran in the Gray Zone

López-Rodríguez Guillermo, Moreno-López Irais, Hernández-Gutiérrez José C.

Applied Cybersecurity & Internet Governance

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2023

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Vol. 2, No. 1

121--139

EN

The holistic nature of security in a hyper-connected world has increased the relevance of cyber environment. One of the most relevant threats identified are the attacks against energy infrastructures. This article presents a comparative study of the actions launched by Russia and Iran in the cyber environment against energy supply. Both States are specialized in asymmetric strategies and tactics in which cyber has a core role. The research analyzes the main actions against energy supply infrastructures, studying the pursued objectives and identifying their potential political results. The document is structured by a first theoretical approach to the use asymmetric gray zone and hybrid strategies, focusing on the use of cyber by Rogue States. From this approach, the analysis reflects the political visions of Russia and Iran, linking it with the Russian actions in Ukraine, as well as the Iranian cyber offensives against western targets. Conclusions reflects about the effectiveness of these strategies to the general strategy of both States.

11

Brachiopods from the Lower Red Formation (Lower Oligocene) of the Isfahan Province, Central Iran

Bitner Maria Aleksandra, Bahrami Ali, Yazdi Mehdi, Zágoršek Kamil

Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae

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2023

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Vol. 93, No. 4

411--422

EN

The study presents the first record of Early Oligocene brachiopods from the Lower Red Formation of the Isfahan Province, Central Iran. The assemblage comprises six brachiopod taxa, belonging to five genera, Novocrania Lee and Brunton, Thecidellina Thomson, Argyrotheca Dall, Joania Álvarez, Brunton and Long, and Platidia Costa. Two species are described as new, Thecidellina persica sp. nov. and Argyrotheca ramshehensis sp. nov. The discovery of Thecidellina in Iran is the first confirmed occurrence of this genus in Oligocene deposits, filling the gap between known Eocene and Miocene occurrences. At the species level, the brachiopods investigated here show no affinity to those from the Lower Miocene Qom Formation.

12

Tropospheric features associated with the onset and cessation of the rainy season in Iran

Asakereh Hossein, Masoodian Sayed Abolfazl, Tarkarani Fatemeh, Zandkarimi Soma

Acta Geophysica

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2023

|

Vol. 71, no. 2

1063--1084

EN

In the present study, according to a provided definition of the widespread rainy season (WRS), the onset of the WRS (OWRS) and the cessation of the WRS (CWRS) occurred in three and four phases, respectively. The phases of the OWRS (26 Sep, 5 Nov, and 15 Dec) were related to the interaction of the sub-polar low pressure (central pressure lower than 996 hpa) and the Siberian high pressure (central pressure higher than 1020 hpa) at the tropospheric lower level and the ridge of Arabia at the 500 hpa (higher than 5850 m). Thus, the eastward-moving of the Mediterranean cyclones (the number of cyclones from the first to the third phase was 264, 245, and 407, respectively) bred the positive moisture flux convergence and reduced the outgoing long waves radiation (OLR) values to about 240 W/M2. Simultaneous with the northward shift of the sub-polar low pressure and penetrating the Siberian high pressure to the west of Iran and the extension of 300-hpa jet stream, the next phase of the OWRS appeared in the southern regions. The four phases of the CWRS (6 Oct, 31 Dec, 5 Mar, and 3 Apr) commenced with the strength (central pressure higher than 1032 hpa) and expansion of the Siberian high pressure, concurrent with the formation of high pressure in the northwest of Iran, followed by the second phase on the Iranian coast of the Caspian Sea. The reduction in gradients of 500 hpa height in the latitude of 20–40 N was associated with increased zonal wind in the longitude of 40 E toward the east and the weakening of the jet stream at 300 hpa. In addition to increasing the OLR (more than 250 W/m2 ), the thermal low pressure, positive values of meridian wind, and negative values of zonal wind over Iran led to the transfer of the characteristics of the adjacent desert, and the maximum OLR planetary belt moved toward the country. Contrary to previous studies, which attributed the onset and cessation of the rainy season to a few atmospheric features, the results of the current study suggest that the onset and cessation of the rainy season resulted from a very complex interaction of several tropospheric factors and geographical features of different regions. This interaction, primarily in geographically diverse realms (e.g., Iran), leads to complicated spatial patterns of the onset and cessation of the rainy season.

13

Snow water equivalent prediction in a mountainous area using hybrid bagging machine learning approaches

Khosravi Khabat, Golkarian Ali, Omidvar Ebrahim, Hatamiafkoueieh Javad, Shirali Masoud

Acta Geophysica

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2023

|

Vol. 71, no. 2

1015--1031

EN

Snow Water Equivalent (SWE) is one of the most critical variables in mountainous watersheds and needs to be considered in water resources management plans. As direct measurement of SWE is difficult and empirical equations are highly uncertain, the present study aimed to obtain accurate predictions of SWE using machine learning methods. Five standalone algorithms of tree-based [M5P and random tree (RT)], rule-based [M5Rules (M5R)] and lazy-based learner (IBK and Kstar) and five novel hybrid bagging-based algorithms (BA) with standalone models (i.e., BA-M5P, BA-RT, BA-IBK, BA-Kstar and BA-M5R) were developed. A total of 2550 snow measurements were collected from 62 snow and rain-gauge stations located in 13 mountainous provinces in Iran. Data including ice beneath the snow (IBS), fresh snow depth (FSD), length of snow sample (LSS), snow density (SDN), snow depth (SD) and time of falling (TS) were measured. Based on the Pearson correlation between inputs (IBS, FSD, LSS, SDN, SD and TS) and output (SWE), six different input combinations were constructed. The dataset was separated into two groups (70% and 30% of the data) by a cross-validation technique for model construction (training dataset) and model evaluation (testing dataset), respectively. Different visual and quantitative metrics (e.g., Nash–Sutclife efficiency (NSE)) were used for evaluating model accuracy. It was found that SD had the highest correlation with SWE in Iran (r=0.73). In general, the bootstrap aggregation (i.e., bagging) hybrid machine learning methods (BA-M5P, BA-RT, BA-IBK, BA-Kstar and BA-M5R) increased prediction accuracy when compared to each standalone method. While BA-M5R had the highest prediction accuracy (NSE=0.83) (considering all six input variables), BA-IBK could predict SWE with high accuracy (NSE=0.71) using only two input variables (SD and LSS). Our findings demonstrate that SWE can be accurately predicted through a variety of machine learning methods using easily measurable variables and may be useful for applications in other mountainous regions across the globe.

14

Review of the book by Sara Bazoobandi (2020), The New Regional Order in the Middle East: Changes and Challenges. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 141, ISBN 978-3-030-27885-4

Shihundu Felix

Security and Defence Quarterly

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2021

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Vol. 36, No. 4

137--141

15

The Cenomanian heterozoan carbonates in the north-central Alborz, north-east Kelardasht, north Iran

Kavoosi Mohammad Ali, Ezoji Neda

Geological Quarterly

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2021

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Vol. 65, No. 3

art. no. 37

EN

Detailed field surveys, petrographic investigation and SEM and EDS analyses have been used to evaluate Cenomanian glauconitic heterozoan carbonates in north-east Kelardasht, north-central Alborz, north Iran. Lithofacies and microfacies analyses led to recognition of six microfacies types related to the inner-, mid- and outer-ramp facies belts of a carbonate ramp. The heterozoan nature of these carbonates is inferred from a predominance of echinoderms associated with calcispheres, planktonic foraminifers, a lack of ooid grains, and a low carbonate production rate, together with a high content of glauconite grains and prevailing high-Mg calcite mineralogy. Petrographic and SEM studies reveal that glauconite filling skeletal grains retains the shape and morphology of host grains, signifying an authigenic origin at low sedimentation rates and slightly reducing conditions. SEM images show cauliflower and rosette structures associated with well-developed lamellae indicating an authigenic origin of evolved glauconite grains. Our findings are compatible with a nutrient-rich waters and palaeoecological stress related to relative sea-level rise and eutrophic conditions, which contributed to the generation of these heterozoan carbonates despite the hot greenhouse conditions during the Cenomanian in the north-central Alborz Mountains.

16

Historical background and peculiarities of mosque construction in Iran as a basis for their restoration

Ivashko Yulia, Dmytrenko Andrii

Wiadomości Konserwatorskie

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2020

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Nr 63

46--53

EN

This paper studies the historical background of the formation of the Persian Islamic school, which was formed largely based on the pre Islamic traditions of the Achaemenids and Sassanids. Insufficiently explored aspects concerning the architectural periodization of Iranian mosques were identified. This gives arguments as to how external factors influenced the formation of the Islamic architectural school of Iran; it was shown how elements of pre-Islamic Persian architecture were organically incorporated into the architecture of the Persian iwan mosque. The relationship between historical and architectural periods, between each architectural period and the types of building materials and structures was analyzed. The process of transition from a purely structure- and functionality-oriented to decorativeness and monumentality was presented.

PL

W artykule przeanalizowano podstawy historyczne powstania perskiej szkoły islamskiej, która w znacznej mierze została oparta na przedislamskich tradycjach Achemenidów i Sasanidów. Zidentyfikowano niedostatecznie zbadane aspekty periodyzacji architektonicznej irańskich meczetów. Przedstawiono argumenty, w jaki sposób czynniki zewnętrzne wpłynęły na powstanie islamskiej szkoły architektonicznej w Iranie. Pokazano także, jak elementy architektoniczne przedislamskiej Persji zostały organicznie włączone do architektury perskiego meczetu typu „iwan”. Przeanalizowano również związek między okresami historycznymi i architektonicznymi oraz pomiędzy każdym okresem architektonicznym a rodzajami materiałów i konstrukcji budowlanych. Zaprezentowano, jak odbywał się proces przejścia od czystej konstrukcji i funkcji do dekoracyjności i monumentalności.

17

The securitisation of hybrid warfare through practices within the Iran-Israel conflict - Israel's practices to securitize Hezbollah's Proxy War

Kaunert Christian, Wertman Ori

Security and Defence Quarterly

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2020

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Vol. 31, No. 4

99--114

EN

Iran has been waging a hybrid war against Israel since the Islamic revolution of 1979. In an era when conventional wars have given way to a different method, hybrid warfare, the main challenge facing states is how to deal with this new type of security threat. Thus, while states have previously faced security threats from regular enemy states’ armies, nowadays hybrid warfare in which non-state actors play a key role has become a widespread security threat that requires democratic states to use very different strategies and tactics to overcome it. Using securitisation theory, which explores how normal issues transform into security threats, this article analyses how the State of Israel has securitised Iranian hybrid warfare which has been mainly executed through its proxy terror organisations of Hezbollah. It does so by applying a revised version of the Copenhagen School’s securitisation framework, which focuses on security practices and is underpinned by an understanding of security as belonging to a continuum. The proxy terror organisations have moved towards the end point of the continuum, which is characterised by survival, existential threats, and militarisation, albeit without completely reaching the end point.

18

Outsourcing warfare: Proxy forces in contemporary armed conflicts

Wither James Kenneth

Security and Defence Quarterly

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2020

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Vol. 31, No. 4

17--34

EN

The aim of this article is to provide a comprehensive examination of the different types of armed non-state proxy groups. It discusses their characteristics and sponsorship and how they are employed by states in pursuit of their security and foreign policy objectives. The article also analyses the reasons for the recent increase in the use of proxy forces, including the benefits and risks for states that employ them, as well as the broader impact of proxy forces on the international security environment, including great power competition. Data was collected and analysed from a wide range of secondary source documents. A descriptive, qualitative research methodology was applied to print and on-line publications available from governmental, institutional and academic sources. This involved literature reviews and case studies to provide an in-depth understanding of current thinking on the topic, while also identifying potential areas for further research. The article provides a comprehensive, qualitative analysis of the existing literature and case studies on the topic of proxy forces, which due to the research methodology applied, also relies on the researcher’s judgement, choices and assumptions. Proxy wars will remain the norm for the foreseeable future. Two strategic developments drive this conclusion. Firstly, there is the renewal of great power competition for influence, resources and security, and secondly, the imperative for states to achieve these objectives without employing their military forces in a manner that could cause a major war.

19

Procesy geomorfologiczne na wybranych wysadach soli w pasie fałdowo-nasuwczym gór Zagros w Iranie

Bukowski Krzysztof

Przegląd Geologiczny

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2020

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Vol. 68, nr 3

167--177

EN

Presently, about 160 salt domes of various sizes exist in the Zagros fold-thrust belt in southern Iran. The salt domes constitute a unique proving ground for research on salt tectonics. In the dry climate that currently dominates in Iran, forms of horizontal salt formations are created, referred to as salt glaciers, in addition to typical steeply falling salt domes. Consequently, it is possible to conduct observations of geomorphological processes developing on the surface of exposed salt rocks and keep a continuous record of their tectonic activity. Salts occurring in that area represent the Hormuz (Hormoz) Formation of the Ediacaran period (Late Neoproterozoic to Early Cambrian). The rocks of the formation usually present a colourful blend of rock salt, anhydrite, black dolomite, shale, and red volcanic tuff, as well as extrusive magmatic and metamorphosed rocks that are interpreted as fragments of deep basement elevated to the land surface by salt domes. The paper describes the geology and geomorphology of the Jashak (Dashti) salt glacier from the Busher Province and two salt domes located on the Persian Gulf Islands: Hormuz (Hormoz Island) and Namakdan (Qeshm Island). The present-day salt dome geomorphology is a result of both climatic effects (precipitation and air temperature) and diapir uplifting forces.

20

The Nowdan anticline of the Zagros orogen as a geoheritage ‘window’ into the late Mesozoic-Cenozoic evolution of the African-Arabian continental margin

Habibi Tahereh, Ruban Dmitry A., Yashalova Natalia N.

Geologos

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2020

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Vol. 26, No. 1

65--73

EN

Geological heritage can contribute to our understanding of the long-term evolution of important sectors of our planet. Cretaceous–Neogene rocks (chiefly carbonates) crop out in the Nowdan anticline of the Zagros orogen. Field investigations have permitted the establishment of 10 key localities (stratigraphical reference sections) that represent these rocks within this anticline, which is a single large geosite. The formations are related to the main phases in the evolution of the northeastern sector of the African–Arabian continental margin. For instance, carbonate rocks of the Asmari Formation mark changes in the affinity of the study area, from the African–Arabian plate to only the Arabian plate, separated in conjunction with Red Sea rifting during the Oligocene. Information on the palaeogeographical changes is really precious to geoscientists and geotourists alike, and contributes to the great value of the Nowdan anticline geosite. Evidence from the latter, as well as from a few other places (i.e., the Mountainous Adygeya geodiversity hotspot in Russia, the North Coast of São Paulo in Brazil and the possible Gondwanan geopark in Namibia) illustrates the necessity of distinguishing a palaeomapping subtype in palaeogeographical characterisation of geological heritage.