Wyniki wyszukiwania - BazTech

1

Causes of stress-relief cracks in forged differential gear

Grega Marek, Brezinová Janette

Zeszyty Naukowe. Transport / Politechnika Śląska

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2025

|

z. 128

83--94

EN

The article investigates the formation of stress-relief cracking and lamellar cracking in steel forgings used for differential gears for transport components. The forging and heat treatment processes, conducted under consistent technological conditions, revealed the occurrence of carburizing annealing cracks caused by plasticity depletion during stress relaxation. Additionally, stress-relief cracks were microstructurally analyzed, and the primary cause of the disturbance of the equilibrium state, which resulted in the formation of these cracks, was sought. Die-tool wear and damage during forging were identified as key contributors to the formation of non-metallic oxide inclusion, transferring surface defects and creating lamellar propagation during subsequent heat treatment. The findings underscore the influence of tooling conditions and process parameters on the quality and reliability of steel forgings.

2

Design and implementation of a digital infrastructure for autonomous open-die forging

Rechenberg Roy, Korpala Grzegorz, Jabłońska Magdalena, Wojtaszek Marek, Zyguła Krystian, Tkocz Marek, Bednarczyk Iwona, Kowalczyk Karolina, Prahl Urlich

Computer Methods in Materials Science

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2025

|

Vol. 25, No. 2

5--15

EN

Open-die forging is a key process for manufacturing large components such as generator shafts and crankshafts for ship engines. Despite its industrial relevance, the process remains dependent on manual labour and operator expertise, leading to challenges in process stability, reproducibility, and efficiency. Traditional automation approaches are impractical due to the high variability and low production volumes typical of open-die forging. At the Institute of Metal Forming (IMF) at the TU Bergakademie Freiberg, a novel concept for autonomous open-die forging has been developed and tested. The system combines conventional forging equipment with advanced technologies, including industrial robotics, 3D laser scanning, thermal imaging, and modular control software. Central to the concept is a robot cell operating as a distributed system, where sensor data is used to create a digital twin of the workpiece. This enables adaptive process planning and real-time autonomous operative adjustments. A process planning tool generates pass sequences and commands for manipulator movements, while an electromechanical interface allows indirect control of the forging press. The modular software architecture, coordinated by a central core-module, ensures flexibility and facilitates integration into different production environments. Initial trials demonstrate the system’s potential to improve process stability and quality while reducing dependency on manual operation. Ongoing work focuses on refining the concept to meet industrial requirements and support advanced material applications.

3

Image analysis applied to monitoring the hot open die forging process with drop hammer

dos Santos Thomas Gomes, Rosiak André, Wermuth Diego Pacheco, Schaeffer Lirio

Advances in Materials Science

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2025

|

Vol. 25, nr 1(83)

37--50

EN

In gravity drop hammer forging, the ram is lifted to a certain height and then released. During the downward motion, the hammer is accelerated by gravity and strikes the workpiece. The operational environment of these machines presents adverse conditions, such as extreme temperatures, high impact velocity, and intense energy generation. These aspects make the instrumentation of these machines highly challenging, leading to the use of theoretical models to describe their dynamic behavior. However, these models involve simplifications that reduce the accuracy of the analyses. This study aims to evaluate the efficiency of Digital Image Correlation (DIC) as a monitoring tool for the hot forging process of AA 6351 aluminum alloy using a drop hammer. Digital Image Correlation allows for the quantitative analysis of the evolution of the workpiece deformation during the process, providing valuable data on process and machine performance. The results obtained demonstrate that Digital Image Correlation is a promising approach for monitoring the hot forging process with a drop hammer, with the potential to enhance the quality of the final product and process efficiency.

4

An evaluation of the capabilities of image-based metal component defect recognition with deep learning techniques

Wójcik Michał P., Pawlikowski Kacper, Madej Łukasz

Computer Methods in Materials Science

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2024

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Vol. 24, No. 3

33--40

EN

In the era of Industry 4.0, deploying highly specialised machine learning models trained on unique and often scarce datasets is an attractive solution for advancing automated quality control and minimising production costs. Therefore, the main aim of this research is to evaluate the capabilities of three deep learning models (ResNet-18, ResNet-50 and SE-ResNeXt-101 (32 × 4d)) in the identification of surface defects in forged products. Leveraging advanced photography techniques, including studio lighting and a shadowless box, high-quality images of complex product surfaces were acquired for the training data set. Given the relatively small size of the image dataset, aggressive data augmentation techniques were introduced during the training and evaluation process to ensure robust model generalisation ability. The results obtained demonstrate the significant impact of data augmentation on model performance, highlighting its importance in training and evaluating deep learning models with limited data. This research also emphasises the need for innovative data pre-processing strategies in an efficient and robust machine learning model delivery to the industrial environment.

5

Effects of SPD by Biaxial Alternate Forging on the Tensile Properties and Microstructure of AZ31B Magnesium Alloy

Shin Young-Chul, Ha Seong-Ho, Shah Abdul Wahid

Archives of Metallurgy and Materials

|

2023

|

Vol. 68, iss. 1

97--101

EN

The forming limit of AZ31 alloy, a representative Mg-Al-Zn-based wrought alloy, and the effect of severe plastic deformation (SPD) by examining the microstructure change caused by dynamic recrystallization led by high temperature and high dislocation density at 300℃ using a biaxial alternate forging (BAF) were investigated in this study. As a result of BAF test for AZ31 Mg alloy, significant cracks on the ends of workpieces occurred after 7 passes. The microstructure of as-extruded specimen showed the non-uniform distribution of the relatively coarse grains and the fine grains considered to be sub-grains. However, as the number of passes increases, the area of coarse grains gradually disappeared and the fine grains became more dominant in the microstructures. The result of tensile test for workpieces with each forging pass showed an increase in strength depending on pass number was shown with a slight increase of elongation. The Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) results exhibited that, the microstructure showed the presence of coarse grains and twins after only 1 pass, while the grains appeared to be significantly refined and uniformly distributed after 3 pass, at which the strength and elongation began to increase, simultaneously.

6

Effect of the Heating Temperature of a Nickel-Chromium Steel Charge Material on the Stability of the Forging Process and the Durability of the Die

Hawryluk Marek R., Lachowicz Marzena, Janik Marta, Gronostajski Zbigniew, Stachowicz Mateusz

Archives of Metallurgy and Materials

|

2023

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Vol. 68, iss. 2

711--722

EN

The study discusses the issues of low durability of dies used in the first operation of producing a valve type forging from high nickel steel assigned for the application in motor truck engines. The analyzed process of manufacturing the exhaust valve forgings is realized in the coextrusion technology, followed by forging in closed dies. This process is difficult to master, mainly due to elevated adhesion of the charge material (high nickel steel - NCF3015) to the tool substrate as well as very high abrasive wear of the tool, most probably caused by the dissolution of hard carbide precipitates during the charge heating. A big temperature scatter of the charge during the heating and its short presence in the inductor prevents microstructure homogenization of the bearing roller and dissolution of hard precipitates. In effect, this causes an increase of the forging force and the pressures in the contact, which, in extreme cases, is the cause of the blocking of the forging already at the beginning of the process. In order to analyze this issue, complex investigations were conducted, which included: numerical modelling, dilatometric tests and hardness measurements. The microstructure examinations after the heating process pointed to lack of structure repeatability; the dilatometric tests determined the phase transformations, and the FEM results enabled an analysis of the process for different charge hardness values. On the basis of the conducted analyzes, it was found that the batch material heating process was not repeatable, because the collected samples showed a different amount of dissolved carbides in the microstructure, which translated into different hardnesses (from over 300 HV to 192 HV). Also, the results of numerical modeling showed that lower charge temperature translates into greater forces (by about 100 kN) and normal stresses (1000 MPa for the nominal process and 1500 MPa for a harder charge) and equivalent stresses in the tools (respectively: 1300 MPa and over 1800 MPa), as well as abrasive wear (3000 MPa mm; 4500 MPa mm). The obtained results determined the directions of further studies aiming at improvement of the production process and thus increase of tool durability.

7

Niekonwencjonalne metody kształtowania plastycznego

Tkocz Marek

Stal, Metale & Nowe Technologie

|

2021

|

nr 5-6

36--37

PL

W artykule przedstawiono koncepcje czterech niekonwencjonalnych metod przeróbki plastycznej: kucia z oscylacyjnym skręcaniem, kucia z poprzecznym ruchem stempla, walcowania z poprzecznym ruchem walców oraz kucia segmentowego. Metody te umożliwiają wytwarzanie wyrobów o nietypowych właściwościach użytkowych oraz istotne zmniejszenie wymaganych sił nacisku narzędzi kształtujących. Wdrożenie zaprezentowanych sposobów kształtowania plastycznego pozwoliłoby na rozszerzenie asortymentu produkcji wielu przedsiębiorstw działających w branży metalowej.

EN

Concepts of four unconventional metal forming methods: compression with oscillatory torsion, compression with transverse punch motion, rolling with transverse rolls motion and incremental forging are presented in the paper. The methods enable manufacturing products with unique functional properties and significant reduction of the required press load. Industrial implementation of the presented metal forming techniques would allow to extend the assortment of many metal parts manufacturers.

8

Numerical analysis of three-stage the forming process hollow forgings with an outer flange

Wójcik Łukasz, Bulzak Tomasz, Winiarski Grzegorz, Szala Mirosław

Zeszyty Naukowe Akademii Morskiej w Szczecinie

|

2020

|

nr 62 (134)

142--147

EN

This article presents the results of computer simulations used to investigate the forming of a hollow coldworked forging with an outer flange. Numerical simulations were performed in Deform 2D/3D using a calculation module for axial-symmetric cases. A ϕ57×12.5 mm tube-shaped billet from 42CrMo4 grade steel was used. The forming process involved two and three stages, consisting of extrusion the shaft portion and forging the flange. The objective of this research was to determine the accuracy of the forming process used to produce the hollow part. This technology was analyzed using the effective strain distributions, the Cockcroft-Latham fracture criterion values, and the forming force progression. The results showed that it was possible to use this three-stage process to forge elements from a tube-shaped billet.

9

Niekonwencjonalne metody kształtowania plastycznego

Tkocz Marek

Stal, Metale & Nowe Technologie

|

2020

|

nr 5-6

28--30

PL

W artykule przedstawiono koncepcje czterech niekonwencjonalnych metod przeróbki plastycznej: kucia z oscylacyjnym skręcaniem, kucia z poprzecznym ruchem stempla, walcowania z poprzecznym ruchem walców oraz kucia segmentowego. Metody te umożliwiają wytwarzanie wyrobów o nietypowych właściwościach użytkowych oraz istotne zmniejszenie wymaganych sił nacisku narzędzi kształtujących. Wdrożenie zaprezentowanych sposobów kształtowania plastycznego pozwoliłoby na rozszerzenie asortymentu produkcji wielu przedsiębiorstw działających w branży metalowej.

EN

Concepts of four unconventional metal forming methods: compression with oscillatory torsion, compression with transverse punch motion, rolling with transverse rolls motion and incremental forging are presented in the paper. The methods enable manufacturing products with unique functional properties and significant reduction of the required press load. Industrial implementation of the presented metal forming techniques would allow to extend the assortment of many metal parts manufacturers.

10

Production technology and mechanical properties of a new grade of steel for forgings with increased strength and impact strength

Burdek Marek, Marcisz Jarosław, Stępień Jerzy

Journal of Metallic Materials

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2020

|

Vol. 72, no. 4

15--21

EN

The study involved the development of the basics of production technology and the testing of the mechanical properties of a new grade of steel for forgings with increased strength and impact strength, intended for special products. The scope of the tests included a proposal for a new steel composition along with the production of ingots and its further processing into forgings in industrial conditions, using an input with various dimensions of the cross-section, proposed as a result of numerical calculations, including the performance of heat treatment in two variants. As a result of tests and analyses, it was found that the proposed technology enables the production of semi-finished products with the assumed level of strength and impact strength.

PL

Opracowano podstawy technologii produkcji oraz przeprowadzono badania właściwości mechanicznych nowego gatunku stali na odkuwki o podwyższonej wytrzymałości i udarności z przeznaczeniem dla wyrobów specjalnych. Zakres badań obejmował propozycję nowego składu stali wraz z wykonaniem wlewków i jej dalszym przetwarzaniem na odkuwki w warunkach przemysłowych, wykorzystując wsad o różnych wymiarach przekroju poprzecznego zaproponowanych w wyniku obliczeń numerycznych łącznie z wykonaniem obróbki cieplnej w dwóch wariantach. W wyniku badań i analiz stwierdzono, że zaproponowana technologia umożliwia uzyskanie półwyrobów o założonym poziomie wytrzymałości i udarności.

11

Innowacyjna technologia produkcji matryc kuziennych

Figna Anna, Figna-Zientz Ewa, Góral Jan, Górecki Artur, Rozpondek Maciej

Hutnik, Wiadomości Hutnicze

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2020

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Vol. 87, nr 11-12

268--270

PL

Przedstawiono innowacyjny sposób wytwarzania matryc kuziennych, wdrażany w kuźni przemysłowej. Robocze powierzchnie rdzenia matrycy wykonanego ze stali konstrukcyjnej napawano materiałami odpornymi na destrukcyjne oddziaływanie procesu technologicznego kucia. Opracowano i wdrożono specjalny program komputerowy dla robota spawalniczego, który zapewnia precyzję napawania matrycy. Wprowadzony innowacyjny sposób wytwarzania matryc kuźniczych w pełni zapewnia wymaganą jakość odkuwek przy zachowaniu stałych parametrów matrycy w okresie eksploatacji.

EN

An innovative method of producing forging dies, implemented in an industrial forge, was presented. The working surfaces of the die core made of structural steel were padded with materials resistant to the destructive impact of the technological forging process. A special computer program has been developed and implemented for the welding robot that ensures the precision of the matrix welding. The introduced innovative method of producing forging dies fully ensures the required quality of forgings while maintaining constant parameters of the matrix during the operation period.

12

Analiza warunków technologicznych wytwarzania matryc kuziennych

Figna Anna, Figna-Zientz Ewa, Góral Jan, Górecki Artur, Rozpondek Maciej

Hutnik, Wiadomości Hutnicze

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2020

|

Vol. 87, nr 11-12

264--267

PL

Przedstawiono parametry procesu technologicznego wytwarzania matryc kuziennych. Przeanalizowano wpływ czynników oddziaływujących bezpośrednio na trwałość matryc. Scharakteryzowano kryteria doboru materiałów na podłoże matrycy (rdzeń) i napoinę w aspekcie dostępności rynkowej w celu wykonania badań weryfikujących ich parametry technologiczne. W oparciu o teorię podobieństwa określono wartości strumieni cieplnych zapewniających stabilizację temperatury matrycy podczas procesu napawania.

EN

Parameters of the technological process of manufacturing forging closed - dies are presented. The influence of factors directly affecting the durability of the closed - dies was analyzed. The criteria for the selection of materials for the closed - dies substrate (core) and the padding weld were characterized in terms of market availability, in order to perform tests verifying their technological parameters. Based on the theory of similarity, the values of thermal fluxes ensuring the stabilization of the closed - dies temperature during the padding process were determined.

13

Perceptive review of augmented reality applications and their outlooks in the forging industry

Sitko Mateusz, Wesołowski Bartłomiej, Adamus Jacek, Lisiecki Łukasz, Piotrowska-Madej Klaudia, Madej Łukasz

Computer Methods in Materials Science

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2020

|

Vol. 20, No. 2

72--80

EN

Perceptive review of augmented reality applications in the forging industry is the primary goal of the paper. The differences between the Virtual (VR) and Augmented (AR) realities are highlighted first. Examples of the AR technology's various industrial applications are then presented, which is followed by the evaluation of capabilities of the approaches in the forging industry. The two practical case study solutions were implemented, and their operational capabilities under industrial conditions were tested. Examples of obtained results are presented within the paper.

PL

W pracy przedstawiono przegląd wybranych zastosowań technologii rozszerzonej rzeczywistości ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem przemysłu kuźniczego. W pierwszej kolejności omówiono różnice pomiędzy technologią rzeczywistości wirtualnej (VR, ang. Virtual Reality) i rozszerzonej (AR, ang. Augmented Reality). Następnie przedstawiono przykłady zastosowań przemysłowych technologii AR. W kolejnym etapie badań opracowano i zaimplementowano dwa rozwiązania testowe wykorzystujące AR dedykowane dla kuźni i określano możliwości ich wykorzystania w warunkach przemysłowych.

14

New Unconventional Processes of Plastic Forming of the Internal Toothing of Coupling Spline Sleeves

Michalczyk J., Wiewiórowska S.

Archives of Metallurgy and Materials

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2020

|

Vol. 65, iss. 1

229--236

EN

The article explores the possibility of using the authors’ three new methods of unconventional extrusion of deep hollows to be used for the manufacture of spline sleeves intended for internal toothing couplings. Two invention patents, PL206466 and PL224121, and one patent application, P.416772, were used for this purpose. Numerical computations were made in the Forge®3D program for the conceptual schemes of forming sleeves. The aim of those computations was to determine the extrusion forces and to compare them with the conventional indirect and direct extrusion methods. Then, on models based on the authors’ plastic forming schemes, numerical computations were made, from which the actual energy and force parameters were determined in the form of the relationship of extrusion force versus forming tool path. Also, the degree of fill of the passes, in which spline sleeve toothing is formed, was determined.

15

Analysis of the Possibilities of Using Forging Heat in Isothermal Annealing Processes for AISI 4140 Alloy

Zwierzchowski M.

Archives of Metallurgy and Materials

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2020

|

Vol. 65, iss. 2

951--958

EN

Production processes of hot forging most often look similar [1-3]. Forging in several operations, usually in three or four. Most often the first operation is upsetting or flattening (sometimes rolling). The last operation is finishing forging. This applies to the production of steel forgings for the automotive, agricultural and other similar industries. Typical production proceeds as follows: the forgings are cleaned (shot-blasted) and then heat treatment is performed. It can be normalization, hardening and tempering, etc. After the heat treatment, forgings are checked and subjected to strength and microscopic tests, hardness tests, impact tests. The type of tests depends on the recipient. The process described in the work takes place in three operations. The heat treatment used so far is hardening and tempering. An attempt was made to change the heat treatment technology for a selected product made of 42CrMo4 steel (1.7225) (4140). An isothermal annealing test was carried out at different temperatures and for different times. The possibility of using heat from the forging process in heat treatment processes for the described product has been confirmed.

16

The numerical analysis of selected defects in forging processes

Łukaszek-Sołek Aneta, Bednarek Sylwia, Lisiecki Łukasz, Skubisz Piotr

Computer Methods in Materials Science

|

2019

|

Vol. 19, No. 3

89--99

EN

Technological development and growing performance expectations these days force quality attitude from the forging industry, which needs to be implemented at the very initial stage of design. Tendency of weight reduction calling for high-strength steels and near-net forging results in sophisticated geometries to be forged under severe work conditions producing low workability. One of the cost-effective contemporary tool to support the design of forging technology is numerical modeling. State of art in computer codes for prediction of the metal behavior during deformation gives high credits to computer simulation, which allows significant reduction of research and development costs. On the other hand, the method prevailing in this field, finite element method (FEM) has some limitations, for instance, the results are indirectly applicable as some of the defects can only be recognized by use of auxiliary criteria for interpretation of the simulation results.

PL

Wysokie wymagania stawiane przez klientów oraz potrzeba obniżenia kosztów produkcji przy jednoczesnym zachowaniu wysokiej jakości produktów powodują konieczność uwzględnienia specjalnych modeli i kryteriów w analizie numerycznej procesów kucia. Najnowsze podejścia oferowane przez producentów komercyjnego oprogramowania nie obejmują kompleksowej analizy wad. W wielu przypadkach konieczne jest uwzględnienie podprogramów stworzonych przez użytkownika i poświęconych konkretnym operacjom kucia. Interdyscyplinarna wiedza pozwala wybrać odpowiednią technikę prognozowania defektów typową dla analizowanego procesu kucia. Głównym celem artykułu przeglądowego jest pokazanie najnowszych narzędzi, ich modyfikacji i rozszerzeń do przewidywania defektów często obserwowanych w procesie przemysłowym kucia z wykorzystaniem modelowania MES. Metodologia badań polegała na połączeniu modelowania numerycznego, testów laboratoryjnych i analizy procesów przemysłowych.

17

Evaluation of Adhesive Wear Mechanism for Application in Hybrid Tool Wear Model in Hot Forging Process

Wilkus M., Rauch Ł., Szeliga D., Pietrzyk M.

Archives of Metallurgy and Materials

|

2019

|

Vol. 64, iss. 4

1395--1402

EN

In hot forging process, tool life is an important factor which influences the economy of production. Wear mechanisms in these processes are dependent on each other, so modeling of them is a difficult problem. The present research is focused on development of a hybrid tool wear model for hot forging processes and evaluation of adding adhesive mechanism component to this model. Although adhesive wear is dominant in cases, in which sliding distances are large, there is a group of hot forging processes, in which adhesion is an important factor in specific tool parts. In the paper, a proposed hybrid tool wear model has been described and various adhesive wear models have been reviewed. The feasible model has been chosen, adapted and implemented. It has been shown that adding adhesive wear model increases predictive capabilities of the global hybrid tool wear model as far as characteristic hot forging processes is considered.

18

Comparative analysis and modelling of newly developed and unconventional processes of plastic forming of toothed gear elements

Michalczyk J., Wiewiórowska S., Muskalski Z.

Archives of Metallurgy and Materials

|

2019

|

Vol. 64, iss. 1

87--94

EN

The article reports the results of a comparative analysis made for three novel unconventional gear wheel forging processes based on the authors’ patented [5,6,21] plastic forming methods developed chiefly for the purposes of extruding hollow products as well as valves and pins. These processes are distinguished by the fact that part of the tooling elements which are normally fixed during conventional forging are purposefully set in motion. This is intended to change the conditions of friction at the metal-tool contact surface and to induce additional thermal effects due to the transformation of the plastic deformation energy into thermal energy and, as a consequence, to improve the plastic flow of metal and to reduce the force parameters of the process.

19

An Impact of Assembly Interference on Stresses in the Die Tool System During Bolt Forging

Nowotyńska I., Kut S., Osetek M.

Archives of Metallurgy and Materials

|

2019

|

Vol. 64, iss. 4

1471--1478

EN

The article presents an analysis of stresses in the current tool system of the die during the implementation of the third forging operation of the screw M12 class 10.9 with cylinder head and hexagonal socket. It was assumed that the level of negative cracking due to stress can be reduced by using a mounting interference between the die and the tube blank. Due to the design of the tool system value of the die, the interference value cannot be too large. Therefore, an analysis of the influence of the interference between the die and the tube blank in a die tool system on the value and distribution of stresses in the individual components. An analysis of the assembly stresses and the stresses occurring during the process of deformation of the shaped head of the screw was done. The calculations were performed using a commercial software package MARC / Mentat.

20

Recent development trends in metal forming

Gronostajski Z., Pater Z., Madej L., Gontarz A., Lisiecki L., Lukaszek-Solek A., Luksza J., Mróz S., Muskalski Z., Muzykiewicz W., Pietrzyk M., Sliwa R. E., Tomczak J., Wiewiórowska S., Winiarski G., Zasadzinski J., Ziólkiewicz S.

Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering

|

2019

|

Vol. 19, no. 3

898--941

EN

Major, recent developmental trends in the field of metal forming are presented in the paper both from experimental and numerical point of view. First, progress made in metal forming processes such as: rolling of long flat products, cross wedge rolling, open die forging, die forging, extrusion, drawing, and stamping are addressed. Then, the study provides infor-mation on the current trends in the application of numerical modeling in the field of metal forming. Presented discussion of the particular issues, is confronted with the authors' own, recently elaborated, solutions.