Purpose: This study aimed to assess the socio-economic importance of bioenergy production for the economy of the European Union and its individual members in relation to its competitiveness and situation on the labour market. Design/methodology/approach: This study analyzes the socioeconomic importance of bioenergy production in EU countries in the context of the turnover generated, volume of employment, and labour productivity in the various sections that produce energy from biomass (bioelectricity, bioethanol and biodiesel). This study uses figures extracted from the EU Bioeconomy Monitoring System (Data-Modeling platform, 2025) for 27 EU countries. Findings: The study showed that bioenergy production in the European Union member countries has a significant importance for its labour market, because the scale of employment in the three analyzed bioenergy sectors doubled between 2010 and 2021 to nearly 50 million employees. During this period revenue from bioenergy production increased more than threefold. In terms of labour productivity, which determines the competitiveness of bioenergy production, the situation in the three examined sectors varies greatly across European Union member states. Practical implications: The findings presented in this article, illustrating the efficiency of individual types of bioenergy production, may provide guidance for private investors regarding capital allocation in the renewable energy sector and for public authorities to support the development of renewable energy sources in EU countries. Social implications: The research results presented in this article can be used in promotional and educational activities to achieve a greater degree of acceptance of the EU climate and energy strategies through the large-scale use of renewable energy by the inhabitants of the European Union, and thus improve the condition of the natural environment and their quality of life. Originality/value: This study fills the research gap by assessing the importance of bioenergy production for the labour market in the European Union.
Purpose: This study aimed to assess the socio-economic importance of bioenergy production for the economy of the European Union and its individual members in relation to its competitiveness and situation on the labour market. Design/methodology/approach: This study analyzes the socioeconomic importance of bioenergy production in EU countries in the context of the turnover generated, volume of employment, and labour productivity in the various sections that produce energy from biomass (bioelectricity, bioethanol and biodiesel). This study uses figures extracted from the EU Bioeconomy Monitoring System (Data-Modeling platform, 2025) for 27 EU countries. Findings: The study showed that bioenergy production in the European Union member countries has a significant importance for its labour market, because the scale of employment in the three analyzed bioenergy sectors doubled between 2010 and 2021 to nearly 50 million employees. During this period revenue from bioenergy production increased more than threefold. In terms of labour productivity, which determines the competitiveness of bioenergy production, the situation in the three examined sectors varies greatly across European Union member states. Practical implications: The findings presented in this article, illustrating the efficiency of individual types of bioenergy production, may provide guidance for private investors regarding capital allocation in the renewable energy sector and for public authorities to support the development of renewable energy sources in EU countries. Social implications: The research results presented in this article can be used in promotional and educational activities to achieve a greater degree of acceptance of the EU climate and energy strategies through the large-scale use of renewable energy by the inhabitants of the European Union, and thus improve the condition of the natural environment and their quality of life. Originality/value: This study fills the research gap by assessing the importance of bioenergy production for the labour market in the European Union.
Purpose: Bioeconomy is one of the largest and most important sectors of the European Union economy. It employed over 17 million people in 2021 and generated an added value of approximately EUR 728 billion. This study assessed the utilisation of the labour factor in bioeconomy sectors in Poland compared with other European Union countries. Design/methodology/approach: An analysis was conducted on employment levels and labour productivity from 2010 to 2021. The study also attempted to classify EU countries based on relative measures of average labour productivity in the bioeconomy and the dynamics of changes observed. Findings: In Poland, the bioeconomy recorded a labour productivity of EUR 12,552 per employee, which represented only 38% of the EU average. Poland ranked 25th in the bioeconomy labour productivity. Throughout the analysed period, labour productivity in Poland rose by 78%. Changes in the sectoral employment structure were noted, with a shift of employees from low-productivity sectors to those with higher productivity. Like most countries that joined the EU after 2004, Poland is one of the countries that are “catching up” due to low labour productivity, which is growing at an above-average rate. Investing in technology and innovations that enhance labour efficiency is essential for competing with countries that have high labour productivity. Research limitations/implications: The key methodological limitations identified in the analysis concern data availability, both temporal and cross-sectional. Originality/value: In this article, the authors attempt to classify EU Member States according to relative measures of average labour productivity in the bioeconomy and the dynamics of its changes in the years 2010-2021 in order to indicate the existence of beta convergence.
Purpose: This study aimed to assess labour productivity in the bioeconomy and the significance of this sector to the labour market in the member states of the European Union. Design/methodology/approach: The surveys were based on data retrieved from the EU Bioeconomy Monitoring System developed by the European Commission’s Joint Research Center for the years 2010-2020. The official classification of economic activity in Europe (NACE) was used. The analysis took into account the size and structure of employment, the percentage share of bioeconomy workers in the total workforce, and labour productivity. Findings: The study showed that in 2020 bioeconomy employed 16.5 million people in 27 EU member states, but in comparison to the year 2010, the rate of employment decreased by almost 14%. The agricultural and food sector, which from 2010 to 2020 employed 78.5% of bioeconomy workers, plays a predominant role in the market. Member states differ in the number and structure of bioeconomy workers, but also in labour productivity. Labour productivity leaders in the bioeconomy were Ireland, Belgium and Sweden, while the bio-based electricity sector was the most productive one. Agriculture achieved the lowest efficiency in utilising the labour factor, so countries with a high level of employment in agriculture also featured relatively low labour productivity in the bioeconomy. Practical and social implications: New conditions to which the European economy needs to adapt imply a need for the development and social acceptance of the bioeconomy. This also provides a rationale for further research taking into account new socio-economic conditions, including labour market conditions. Originality/value: The study fills the research gap in the assessment of the bioeconomy from the perspective of the labour market.
Circular bioeconomy constitutes one of the key developmental strategies of the European Union. Understanding the conditions for the advancement thereof is crucial for successfully implementing these principles in daily production and consumption. The aim of this study was to identify the key drivers within bioeconomy indicators. The research was conducted based on bioeconomy indicators classified by the European Commission. Data were obtained from Eurostat and FAOSTAT, describing phenomena recognised as bioeconomy indicators for the period from 2012 to 2021. The analysis covered selected EU countries – member states that joined the community before 2004. The data underwent exploratory factor analysis, which identified five groups of indicators linked to underlying factors. These factors were identified as: Innovation, Institutional Conditions: Implementation of the Circular Economy Strategy, Institutional Conditions: Implementation of Sustainable Development Policies, Resource Efficiency, and Support and Expansion of Forested Areas. The analysis also identified certain risks associated with the development of bioeconomy, as measured by the indicators defined by the European Commission. The mentioned risks relate to a decline in food purchasing power and a decrease in biodiversity.
PL
Cyrkularna biogospodarka stanowi jedną z kluczowych strategii rozwoju Unii Europejskiej. Zrozumienie uwarunkowań jej rozwoju jest kluczowe dla sukcesu wdrożenia tych zasad w codzienną produkcję i konsumpcję. Celem niniejszego badania było zidentyfikowanie czynników stojących za postępem w obrębie wskaźników biogospodarki. Badanie zostało prze prowadzone w oparciu o wskaźniki biogospodarki sklasyfikowane przez Komisję Europejską. Dane pozyskano z Eurostatu i FAOstatu. Opisywały one zjawiska uznane za wskaźniki biogospodarki w okresie od 2012-2021. Analizie poddano wybrane kraje Unii Europejskiej – kraje członkowskie, które dołączyły do wspólnoty przed 2004 rokiem. Dane zostały poddane eksploracyjnej analizie czynnikowej. W badaniu wyodrębniono pięć grup wskaźników powiązanych z ukrytymi czynnikami. Czynniki te zostały zidentyfikowane jako: Innowacyjność, Uwarunkowania instytucjonalne: Realizacja strategii GOZ, Uwarunkowania instytucjonalne: wdrażanie polityk rozwoju zrównoważonego, Efektywność wykorzystania zasobów oraz Wsparcie i rozbudowa obszarów leśnych. Podczas analizy zidentyfikowane zostały również pewne ryzyka, z którymi wiąże się rozwój biogospodarki mierzony zdefiniowanymi przez KE wskaźnikami. Ryzyka te dotyczą spadku siły nabywczej żywności i spadku bioróżnorodności.
W pracy przedstawiono istotę cyrkularnej biogospodarki oraz jej powiązania z sektorem wodociągowo-kanalizacyjnym. Wskazano również działania będące motorem rozwoju biogospodarki oraz przyjętą w Unii Europejskiej strategię. Na tym tle omówiono zagadnienia związane z odzyskiem surowców oraz energii w oczyszczalniach ścieków. Przeprowadzona analiza pozwoliła na wyciągnięcie wniosku, że obiekty te mogą odegrać znaczącą rolę w implementacji cyrkularnej biogospodarki bazującej na biomasie wtórnej, przyczyniając się do zmniejszenia zużycia surowców pierwotnych, ograniczenia zależności od zasobów nieodnawialnych, a także do redukcji emisji gazów cieplarnianych.
EN
The paper presents the essence of the circular bioeconomy and its connections with the water supply and sewage sector. Actions that drive the development of bioeconomy and the strategy adopted in the European Union are also indicated. Against this background, issues related to the resources and energy recovery in wastewater treatment plants were discussed. The conducted analysis led to the conclusion that these facilities can play a significant role in the implementation of a circular bioeconomy based on waste biomass, contributing to the reduction of the consumption of primary raw materials, reduction of dependence on non-renewable resources, as well as to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
Dziś szczególnie istotne jest pokazanie, że produkcja rolno-spożywcza może być przyjazna klimatowi, a transformacja w kierunku gospodarki obiegu zamkniętego jest jedną z dróg do osiągnięcia tego celu.
This paper analyzes the steps of the strategic development and use of innovations in the field of biotechnology in the largest and most developed countries of the world. Support for applied recommendations for state-level fundamental provisions regarding initiatives to develop the capacity of the biotechnology sector and increase the level of an international, strategic and competitive industry is presented. The authors conducted a study and evaluated the further promising use of innovations in biotechnology on the example of the EU-15 and EU13 countries. A regularity was revealed that the biotechnology of the EU countries (EU-15) is developed at a high national and international level. The overall results of our work have helped to define further strategic directions and presented potential prospects for innovation in the field of biotechnology, which will subsequently lead to increased investment in this area. Using the graphical method, a dynamic model of trade turnover in the bioeconomy of the EU-15 countries is presented, followed by the construction of a trend line. And also formulated and predicted the value of trade in the bioeconomy of the EU-15 and EU-13 for the next decade.
Purpose: Bioeconomy is a contemporary concept of economic development. It means focusing on increasing economic efficiency through a more extensive use of renewable environmental resources. The implementation of this concept causes structural changes in the economy and consumption at both macro, regional and local levels. The bioeconomy refers to the concept of sustainable development. The level of development of bioeconomy is important in enhancing regional cohesion in terms of economic and social development. The bioeconomy is the subject of both conceptual research and structural decision-making in economic development. The purpose of the article is to present economic diversification in Poland in 2010-2019 in relation to selected aspects of bioeconomy development. Design/methodology/approach: In order to construct the indicator of the level of bioeconomy development in the regions, statistical characteristics were selected and weighted using a formula that favored the characteristics with the highest variability. Then, to illustrate the level of bioeconomy, a synthetic indicator was constructed to divide the regions into three categories: low-development regions, developing regions and developed regions. Findings: The level of bioeconomy development in Polish regions shows great variation in both bioeconomy resources, economic indicators for the bioeconomy and innovation in the production process. Dispersion coefficient of regional level of bioeconomy points to the ongoing processes of regional divergence in the bioeconomy in Poland. Efficiency in the use of available resources, including the degree of renewable energy use and the level of innovation in the regions, was the most important factor in the development of the bioeconomy during the study period. Research limitations/implications: The use of statistical methods should be comprehensive in order to present a picture of the subject of the research from multiple perspectives and the findings regarding other areas. Hence the need to use research methods that take into account the interdependence between different factors affecting socio-economic development both on a national and regional scale. Practical implications: The development of bioeconomy is undoubtedly a factor influencing the socio-economic development of regions. However, it is not the only developmental stimulator. The activities of both national and regional authorities should be diversified, based on supporting various types of economic activity and investing in different branches and industries. A holistic approach to the issue of regional disparities that takes into account the bioeconomy can lead to a narrowing of the development gap between different regions in the country. Social implications: The development of bioeconomy is an opportunity to improve the quality of life and living conditions for the inhabitants of regions with resource potential and openness to apply new solutions and technologies in this area. Originality/value: An attempt to identify the level of bioeconomy development in dynamic terms and its relationship to the positioning of regions in terms of the level of socio-economic development.
Europejski Zielony Ład jest bezprecedensowym pakietem przepisów, który obejmuje ok. 50 propozycji regulacji i dziesiątki strategii politycznych. Dzięki nim Unia Europejska konkretyzuje ambicje restrukturyzacji gospodarki, aby była bardziej „zielona, cyfrowa i prężna”, globalnie wiodąca w „trzeciej rewolucji przemysłowej”, a co najważniejsze – „pierwszym obojętnym węglowo kontynentem” do 2050 r. Prawnie wiążące, rygorystyczne cele klimatyczne musi osiągnąć już w 2030 r. Wszystkie te zmiany następują ze zdumiewającą prędkością.
EN
The European Green Deal i san unprecedented regulatory package, including some 50 legiclative proposals and dozens of policy strategies with which the European Union is making concreto its ambitions to overhaul teh EU economy to more „green, digital and resilient”, leading globally „the third industrial revolution” to become the „first carbon neutral continent” by 2050 and meeting legally binding strict climate targets already by 2030. All this is now being rolled out with breathless speed.
Plastic materials are shaping modern society and making our lives easier. However, due to improper handling of plastic waste, plastics are no longer ubiquitous only in our homes, villages and cities but also in the natural environment. In line with the concept of bioeconomy, bioplastics are presented as a sustainable option that could help the economy overcome its dependence on fossil fuels and contribute to the reduction of overall plastic pollution. The study aims to identify the areas of academic interest in bioplastics. The study's methodological approach is based on a bibliometric (scientometric) analysis. It was found that in academia, biology, chemistry, and biotechnology are the main areas dealing with bioplastics, focusing on the whole process of product development. At the same time, there is a significant lack of research in areas such as social sciences, including econom-ics. These findings should contribute to the global scientific discourse.
PL
Tworzywa sztuczne kształtują współczesne społeczeństwo i ułatwiają codzienne życie. Jednak w związku z niewłaściwym postępowaniem, odpady z tworzyw sztucznych są wszechobecne nie tylko w naszych domach, wsiach i miastach, ale także w środowisku naturalnym. Zgodnie z koncepcją biogospodarki biotworzywa są przedstawiane jako zrównoważona opcja, która może pomóc gospodarce przezwyciężyć zależność od paliw kopalnych i przyczynić się do zmniejszenia ogólnego zanieczyszczenia tworzywami sztucznymi. Badanie ma na celu zidentyfikowanie obszarów zainteresowań naukowych biotworzywami. Podejście metodologiczne badania opiera się na analizie bibliometrycznej (scientometrii). Stwierdzono, że w środowisku akademickim biologia, chemia i biotechnologia to główne obszary zajmujące się biotworzywami, skupiające się na całym procesie rozwoju produktu. Jednocześnie istnieje znaczny brak badań w takich dziedzinach, jak nauki społeczne, w tym ekonomia. Niniejsze rozważania powinny przyczynić się do globalnego dyskursu naukowego.
Purpose: The main aim of the article is to characterize the concept of the bioeconomy from the theoretical point of view and to present its impact on the economic balance of international trade in Poland in 2008-2017. SWOT analysis of the bioeconomy in Poland was presented as an additional aim of the paper. Design/methodology/approach: The annual reports published by the Central Statistical Office in Poland were used to assess the impact of the bioeconomy on the results of international trade in Poland. Findings: Based on the analysis, it was found that all areas of the Polish bioeconomy have a positive impact on the level of Polish imports and exports. In the analyzed period the balance of foreign trade has significantly improved, despite the fact that employment in this area has decreased. Practical implications: Bioeconomy and its areas as a factor positively influencing the development of the whole country should be further developed and skillfully managed while maintaining appropriate means of financing its activities. Originality/value The article emphasizes the importance of the issue of the bioeconomy and outlines the directions of considerations for further analysis of the studied sector.
Rozmaite organizacje od lat podejmują szereg prac mających na celu skierowania gospodarki na model o obiegu zamkniętym. Tego typu działania mają pomóc w ograniczeniu negatywnego wpływu przemysłu na środowisko. Jakie są słabe i mocne strony sytuacji prawnej w tym zakresie i jakie niesie to za sobą skutki?
Diatomit to ziemia okrzemkowa, naturalny minerał pochodzenia organicznego. Skały okrzemkowe należą do skał osadowych, powstałych w okresie trzeciorzędu i czwartorzędu z pancerzyków jednokomórkowych okrzemek, które osiadły na dnie mórz i jezior. Podstawowym składnikiem diatomitu jest krzemionka SiO2 o różnym stopniu uwodnienia, której towarzyszą niewielkie ilości innych substancji mineralnych. Materiał ten posiada ujemny ładunek elektryczny, stąd zdolność diatomitu do przyciągania różnorodnych cząsteczek, do których należą liczne zanieczyszczenia. Artykuł omawia unikatowe właściwości diatomitu, które mogą być wykorzystane w wielu dziedzinach biogospodarki.
EN
Diatomite is diatomaceous earth, a natural mineral of organic origin. Diatomaceous rocks were formed in the Tertiary and Quaternary periods from the shells of single celled diatoms that settled on the bottom of seas and lakes. The basic component of diatomite is silica SiO2 of various degrees of hydration, with small amounts of other minerals. This mineral material has a negative electric charge, therefore diatomite shows ability to attract various particles, including numerous impurities. The paper discusses the unique properties of diatomite that can be used in many areas of the bioeconomy.
Many factors, such as climate change and the associated risk of increasing the average temperature on the globe, energy security and the finishing of fossil fuel deposits have caused other renewable energy sources to be sought. Transport, as a branch of industry largely responsible for air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions in large cities, requires the necessary changes in the way vehicles are powered. Until now, the fuels available at petrol stations use admixtures of first generation biofuels, such as bioethanol, as a 5% additive to motor gasolines and biodiesel (FAME) as a 7% additive to diesel oil. The article presents the idea of biorefinery installations, specifies the spectrum of substrates of the second and advanced generations, which may be a biorefinery input, including waste oils that can be used to produce hydrogenated HVO vegetable oils and other high-value products. The paper presents he existing biorefinery plant in Venice resulting from the transformation of a conventional oil refinery in which HVO fuel is produced. The article also presents the parameters of this new biofuel and compared them with the parameters of other fuels used to power self-ignition engines, such as FAME and diesel, along with discussing the prospects for HVO fuel development in Europe.
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New trends in sustainable design contribute to prevention of the deterioration of the natural environment and they are focused on the optimisation of the indoor environment for the improvement of the human life quality. There are complementary goals of sustainable design – the comfort of architecture users, proper spatial planning, and, as a priority, taking into account the needs of both contemporary and future generations. These existential needs are connected with both local and global sozological problems. These are related to the continuing growth of irreversible changes to the environment, such as climate change, the disappearance of biodiversity, and the over-exploitation of nonrenewable sources of energy as result of shortsighted economy. These imply the necessity for the sozological education in all subjects of study and transdisciplinary training focused on the solving of problems associated with sustainable development.
PL
Nowe tendencje w zakresie projektowania zrównoważonego przeciwstawiają się degradacji środowiska przyrodniczego i są ukierunkowane na optymalizację środowiska wewnątrz budynków w celu poprawy jakość życia człowieka. Poza dążeniem do komfortu użytkowania architektury i odpowiednim zagospodarowaniem przestrzeni priorytetem projektowania zrównoważonego jest realizacja potrzeb zarówno współczesnego człowieka, jak również przyszłych pokoleń. Z tymi egzystencjalnymi potrzebami wiążą się problemy sozologiczne zarówno o zasięgu lokalnym, jak i globalnym. Dotyczą one nasilających się i nieodwracalnych zmian środowiska, takich jak: ocieplenia klimatu, zanikanie bioróżnorodności, wyczerpywanie się nieodnawialnych źródeł energii, połączone z rabunkową gospodarką. Implikuje to konieczność edukacji sozologicznej na wszystkich kierunkach studiów i szkolenia interdyscyplinarne pod katem rozwiązywania problemów zrównoważonego rozwoju.
The notion of bioeconomy, appearing in publications, usually carries positive connotations, even to those less informed. It signifies a new approach towards economic development that is rather not perceived through the prism of unavoidable losses in the environment and reaching for further deposits of required raw materials. It turns out that – at least according to the assumptions and quite probably also in practice – it can be done differently, i.e. at the same level of efficiency, yet without negative effects on people and the environment. The idea of bioeconomy is one of the strategic conceptions of sustainable development, i.e. the method of implementing current economic objectives due to the new technological solutions with reduced use of natural resources and impact on the environment, having in mind future generations; this is an intention to adjust, to the maximum possible degree, developmental activities to absorption capacity of natural and man-made ecosystems. The weakest point in these attempts, as it may seem, is the lack of knowledge concerning the long-term results of creating social perception for bioeconomy development, and consequently, dilemmas concerning possible sanitary-epidemiological and demographical changes evoked by (slightly different, but reaching as far as those in the present time) interference with the environment.
PL
Pojawiające się w publikacjach pojęcie biogospodarki, nawet bliżej niezorientowanym, zwykle kojarzy się z czymś pozytywnym. Chodzi bowiem o nowe podejście do rozwoju gospodarczego postrzeganego już nie koniecznie przez pryzmat nieuniknionych strat w środowisku i sięgania po kolejne złoża niezbędnych surowców. Okazuje się, że – przynajmniej w założeniach, a całkiem prawdopodobne, że i praktyce również – można inaczej, tzn. tak samo efektywnie, ale bez negatywnych skutków dla ludzi i otoczenia. Idea biogospodarki jest jedną ze strategicznych koncepcji zrównoważonego rozwoju, tj. sposobu na realizację dotychczasowych celów gospodarczych przy zminimalizowanym zużyciu zasobów naturalnych i oddziaływania na środowisko dzięki nowym rozwiązaniom technologicznym z myślą o przyszłych pokoleniach; to zamiar maksymalnego dopasowania działań rozwojowych do możliwości absorpcyjnych ekosystemów naturalnych i zantropomorfizowanych. Najsłabszym punktem w tych dążeniach – jak się wydaje – jest brak wiedzy na temat dalekosiężnych, przyszłych skutków kreowania percepcji społecznej budowania biogospodarki, a wraz nimi dylematy możliwych zmian epidemiologiczno-sanitarnych i demograficznych wywoływanych (nieco innymi, ale podobnie głęboko sięgającymi jak w mijającej teraźniejszości) ingerencjami w środowisko.
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Ważną rolę w krajowej gospodarce odgrywa przemysł mięsny, który obejmuje wszystkie przedsiębiorstwa zajmujące się ubojem zwierząt rzeźnych, rozbiórką tusz, wykrawaniem mięsa oraz produkcją przetworów mięsnych. Pomimo nowoczesnej infrastruktury i stosowanych technologii, ubojnie zwierząt i zakłady przetwórstwa mięsnego nadal zaliczane są do obiektów mogących w wyniku produkcji odpadów w znaczącym zakresie pogarszać stan środowiska. Największy problem stanowią odpady rzeźne i wytwarzane na ich bazie mączki mięsne i mięsno-kostne. Zakaz wykorzystywania mączek w żywieniu zwierząt gospodarskich spowodował problemy z ich racjonalnym zagospodarowaniem. W związku ze zmianami w ustawodawstwie wzrasta zainteresowanie energetyki biomasą odpadową z przetwórstwa mięsa. Termiczna utylizacja mączek zwierzęcych oraz biomasy odpadowej może stanowić istotne źródło energii dla energetyki oraz być przykładem praktycznego wdrażania zasad zrównoważonego rozwoju i biogospodarki.
EN
Playing an important part in domestic economy, meat industry mainly comprises companies involved in slaughter of animals, meat boning and cutting, and production of processed meats. Despite cutting-edge infrastructures and advanced technologies, abattoirs and meat processing plants are still ranked among those enterprises which generate waste and as a result significantly contribute to deterioration of the environment. The greatest problems are connected with abattoir waste, and meat meal as well as meat and bone meal produced from such waste. The prohibition to use this type of fodder in livestock farming has led to additional problems in the rational utilisation of the waste. As a result of changes in energy laws, there is increasing interest in waste biomass from meat processing, which may constitute an important source of energy for power industry. Thermal utilisation of animal meals may be as an important source of energy and serve as an example of practical implementation of the principles of sustainable development and bioeconomy.
W kontekście poszukiwania rozwiązań dla biogospodarki o obiegu zamkniętym statystyki dotyczące produkcji nie są najważniejsze. O wiele istotniejsze jest tworzenie warunków dla wykorzystania tych surowców, które w obecnej rzeczywistości nie znajdują zastosowania. Gospodarka o obiegu zamkniętym opiera się na dość powszechnie uznawanym diagramie opracowanym przez Ellen MacArthur Foundation. Mówi on o istnieniu dwóch cykli: biologicznym (obejmującym surowce odnawialne) oraz technicznym (obejmującym surowce nieodnawialne). Do cyklu biologicznego zaliczać będziemy działania spełniające dwa warunki - będą posiadały walor cyrkularności oraz dotyczyć będą zasobów odnawialnych - biomasy.
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