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1

Próby z bronią jądrową w atmosferze - historia oraz ich skutki

Awsiuk Romuald

Systemy Wspomagania w Inżynierii Produkcji

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2024

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Vol. 13, iss. 2

164--173

PL

W artykule przedstawiono znaczenie testów broni jądrowej zwracając szczególną uwagę na wybuchy w atmosferze. By dobrze rozpatrzyć ten temat w pierwszej części przedstawiono reakcje wyzwalające energie wiązania uwalnianą w wybuchach jądrowych. Następnie przedstawiono budowę i zasadę działania różnych typów bomb jądrowych. W dalszej części przytoczono pełną historię atmosferycznych próbnych wybuchów zwracając przy tym uwagę na rodzaj bomby i siłę wybuchu. Omówiono też rodzaje skażenia jakie powodują różne typy broni jądrowej jak również skutki zaburzenia stanu atmosfery spowodowane tymi testami. W końcu pokazano w jaki sposób wykorzystać fakt skażenia środowiska i zaburzenia stanu atmosfery w badaniach naturalnego środowiska.

EN

The article presents the significance of nuclear weapons testing, with particular reference to atmospheric explosions. In order to provide a good overview of the subject, the first part presents the reactions that trigger the binding energies released in nuclear explosions. This is followed by a presentation of the construction and operating principles of the various types of nuclear bomb. In a following section, the complete history of atmospheric test explosions is given, with emphasis on the type of bomb and the power of the explosion. The types of contamination caused by different types of nuclear weapons are also discussed, as well as the effects of atmospheric disturbance caused by these tests. Finally, it is shown how the fact of environmental contamination and atmospheric disturbance can be used in studies of the natural environment.

2

Traktaty i umowy o nierozprzestrzenianiu broni jądrowej

Rzymkowski Krzysztof

Postępy Techniki Jądrowej

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2023

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z. 2

7--24

PL

W opracowaniu przedstawiono przegląd traktatów i umów międzynarodowych dotyczących nierozprzestrzeniania broni jądrowej umożliwiających tworzenie systemów kontroli i weryfikacji materiałów jądrowych. Szczególną uwagę zwrócono na Traktat NPT i rolę MAEA. Omówiono również traktaty: Thateloco, Rarotonga, Bangkok, Pelindaba, Guadalajara oraz Euratom.

EN

The paper presents an overview of treaties and international agreements on non-proliferation of nuclear weapons that enable the creation of control and verification systems for nuclear materials. Particular attention paid to the NPT and the role of the IAEA.. The following treaties were discussed: Thateloco, Rarotonga, Bangkok, Pelindaba, Guadalajara and Euratom.

3

Russia's new nuclear doctrine : Russian policy of deterrence

Kleszcz Sławomir

Przegląd Nauk o Obronności

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2022

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R. 7, Nr 15

138--160

EN

Objectives: The main purpose of the article is to address the issues arising from the new nuclear doctrine of Russia. An attempt to analyze the document is "Russia's Nuclear Doctrine" as a new tool for the Russian Federation's nuclear deterrent policy. The performance changes over the years in Russia's approach to the use of nuclear weapons in the new doctrine in the times of the Soviet Union in global terms, as well as in the micro-region of Central Europe, especially during the war in Ukraine. Methods: The article is theoretical and descriptive. The main research methods and techniques included in the work are: analysis and synthesis of literature; comparative method; inductive and deductive method. Results: An attempt was made to analyze the document "Russia's Nuclear Doctrine" as a new tool for the Russian Federation's nuclear deterrent policy. A presentation of how Russia's approach to the use of nuclear weapons has changed over the years. Conclusions: The Russian approach to nuclear deterrent policy is changing and is often used as flexibly as Russia's policy towards the West is forged in a given situation - to build its own political interests. All this is very efficiently and sophisticatedly applied in society by means of propaganda and media controlled by the authorities, with which the rulers manipulate public opinion. According to the decree, the threshold for Russia's use of nuclear weapons remains unchanged and is relatively high. The essence of the Russian doctrine is the uncertainty of a potential adversary as to when it will be used.

4

Effectiveness of nuclear deterrence against Russia

Kostrzewa-Zorbas Grzegorz

Przegląd Nauk o Obronności

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2022

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R. 7, Nr 15

127--137

EN

Objectives: The objective is to answer three research, policy, and strategy questions: 1. Is and will be the NATO and US strategy of nuclear deterrence effective against Russia? 2. Can the strategy of nuclear deterrence as the supreme guarantee of the security of NATO have a lasting public acceptance in the member states? 3. Is it necessary to complement the NATO and US strategy of nuclear deterrence with another, also strong but different, guarantee of security? Methods: Qualitative methodology is used. Official documents and scientific publications provide the basis for analysis. Results: The answer to question 1 is mostly but not fully positive: Against Russia, the NATO and US strategy of nuclear deterrence probably has and will have high although not absolute effectiveness. Evaluated are five nesserary conditions of effectiveness. Negative is the answer to question 2 if concerning Poland and other countries of the eastern flank of NATO that have little knowledge of and historical experience in nuclear arms and strategy: The strategy of nuclear deterrence based on the threat of nuclear retaliation against nuclear-armed nations will probably not gain a lasting public acceptance. Affirmative is the answer to question 3: The NATO and US strategy of nuclear deterrence requires a complementary strong security guarantee. Conclusions: Scientific and technological progress will likely allow NATO to create a complementary guarantee by realizing the concept - which was unattainable in the past, including during the Cold War - of an impenetrable shield against nuclear weapon delivery means in airspace and outer space.

5

Nuclear weapons in an international security environment

Załęski Krzysztof

Safety & Defense

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2019

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2

8--16

EN

Nuclear weapons are a historically acknowledged factor of security development and maintenance of the strategical balance. Therefore, in spite of programs preventing its proliferation, most states having such weapons modernize and develop their nuclear arsenals, perceiving it as a sign of power and a guarantee of security. The methodology employed in this article critical analysis and synthesis of reliable sources from the scope of the area of research. The nature of the article is explanatory with elements of inference. This paper presents an evaluation of circumstances inducing a state to possess nuclear weapons, in consideration of both the positive and negative consequences of their possession. In the author’s view, studying this article should at least evoke a reflection on the development of nuclear weapons as a means of forming modern relations of security.

6

Modern assumptions of the American Ballistic Missile Defence System against the background of historical concepts and programmes

Murat-Bors A.

Security and Defence Quarterly

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2018

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Vol. 22, No. 5

99--131

EN

The issue of missile defence has been present in American policy for over 70 years and is constantly subject to research and the search for new technologies. Nowadays, the proliferation of nuclear weapons and ballistic missiles, as well as the growing threat from the so-called “rogue states” have caused the inevitable development of the missile defence strategy. On the basis of historical programmes and the results of contemporary research, the concept of a Ballistic Missile Defence System was created. The system is based on the principles of indivisibility of the security of the Alliance and NATO solidarity, fair sharing of risk and burdens as well as taking on reasonable challenges. One of the components of the system is the European Phase Adaptive Approach, which was designed to protect American allies and resources in the European region from the growing rocket threat. This paper analyses the genesis of ballistic missile defence and what its development tendencies are. The article contains a presentation of the essence of the US Ballistic Missile Defence System, as well as its history and suspended programmes. The concept of multilayered defence has been outlined, as have the technical details of the system’s components and its location and operational status.

7

Skutki negocjacji nuklearnych z Iranem dla bezpieczeństwa Bliskiego Wschodu

Kaszuba M.

Kwartalnik Bellona

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2017

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Nr 2

40--50

PL

Negocjacje wielostronne dotyczące irańskiego programu nuklearnego sięgają 2003 roku. Wówczas to podpisano porozumienie, na mocy którego Iran miał zaprzestać wzbogacania uranu i pozwolić na monitorowanie swoich obiektów jądrowych przez międzynarodowych inspektorów. W 2006 roku Iran zerwał porozumienie i ponownie zaczął wzbogacać uran. Kolejne negocjacje z Islamską Republiką Iranu rozpoczęła 24 listopada 2014 roku grupa sześciu mocarstw, tzw. grupa P5+1. Ostatecznie porozumienie zostało podpisane 14 lipca 2015 roku. Osiągnięcie porozumienia zaniepokoiło przywódców państw Bliskiego Wschodu, ponieważ wzmocniony gospodarczo Iran będzie mógł intensywniej niż obecnie angażować się w konflikt w Iraku, Syrii, Libanie i Jemenie, a także wspierać ugrupowania szyickie w Bahrajnie i wschodnim regionie Arabii Saudyjskiej. Obawy te wydają się jednak przesadzone. Iran ma ambicję dominować w regionie i zdaje sobie sprawę ze swoich możliwości destabilizowania sytuacji, ale nie jest potęgą wojskową zdolną do agresji.

EN

Iran has a nuclear program that could potentially allow Tehran to produce nuclear weapons from highly enriched uranium (HEU) and plutonium. Multilateral negotiations regarding Iran's nuclear program date back to 2003. Iran signed an agreement to alleviate international concerns regarding its uranium enrichment program and to allow international inspectors for monitoring its nuclear infrastructure. In 2006, Iran broke the agreement and restarted enrichment. On November 24, 2013, a group of six powers (the so-called P5+1) again started negotiations with Iran concerning its nuclear program. On July 14, 2015, the P5+1 and Iran signed a comprehensive agreement. Gulf leaders believe the nuclear deal allows Iran to meddle even more than it already does in the conflicts in Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Yemen, and perhaps to stir up Shias in Bahrain and eastern Saudi Arabia. However, current military capabilities of Iran are of defensive nature; it is not capable to project military power which threatens its neighbors. Iran will take decades, not years, to rebuild its atrophied conventional military capabilities. It knows how to make a great deal of trouble when it wants to, but it is not a potentially dominant military power.

8

Nuclear weapons in the strategies of the United States and NATO. Strategy of massive retaliation and flexible response

Zielonka Z.

Zeszyty Naukowe / Wyższa Szkoła Oficerska Wojsk Lądowych im. gen. T. Kościuszki

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2016

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Nr 3

71--99

EN

The introduction of the hydrogen bomb to the nuclear arsenal turned out to be a breakthrough in the creation of the strategic deterrence system. It determined the evolution of the nuclear strategy on both sides of the “Iron Curtain”. The appearance of high-power light thermonuclear bombs became an impulse for the creation of ballistic missiles. Globally, this type of weapon significantly speeded up reaching a nuclear stalemate and contributed to taking up efforts to seek measures of a limited nuclear war and a “flexible response” as an alternative to massive retaliation.

9

Nuclear weapon in the strategies of the United States and NATO. The containment strategy

Zielonka Z.

Zeszyty Naukowe / Wyższa Szkoła Oficerska Wojsk Lądowych im. gen. T. Kościuszki

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2016

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Nr 2

177--193

EN

The fact that the production and the use of a nuclear weapon during the World War II began a new chapter in both the development of military technology and views on the preparation and conduct of a war. Creators and supporters of the atomic bomb quickly realized that it was too powerful to force it into the framework of existing doctrines. Therefore, it proved necessary to look for other solutions as the basis for a new type of a strategy. It was expected that this would be the political-military "containment" strategy introduced in the late 1940s. This, becoming the cornerstone of the US foreign policy, treated the nuclear arsenal as the most convenient and sometimes the only tool of deterrence of the Soviet Union. In the military dimension, as a derivative of the contradictory nuclear strategy of the Truman’s administration, it did not give up the bombing of cities but through deterrence and assurance of the security of allies in Europe it proposed a quick and massive nuclear attack.

10

Rozbudowa arsenałów nuklearnych zagrożeniem światowego pokoju

Gwiazda A.

Kwartalnik Bellona

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2016

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Nr 3

11--22

PL

Stany Zjednoczone i Rosja zobowiązały się do całkowitej likwidacji głowic nuklearnych. Mimo zobowiązań traktatowych oba te państwa jednak stale modernizują i rozbudowują swoje arsenały nuklearne. Podobnie postępują inne potęgi atomowe, takie jak Chiny, Indie, Pakistan, Izrael i – w ostatnich latach - Korea Północna. Tego rodzaju aktywność mocarstw atomowych istotnie zagraża światowemu pokojowi.

EN

The United States and Russia have obligated themselves to pursuing complete nuclear disarmament. However, despite their treaty obligations, these two countries, as well as other atomic power such as Chena, India, Pakistan, Israel and recently and North Korea, have been steadily modernizing and rebuilding their nuclear arsenals. Such strategy constitutes a very serious challenge in the world peace.

11

Amerykańska strategiczna triada nuklearna

Affek J.

Zeszyty Naukowe AON

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2015

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nr 1(98)

53-75

EN

This article discusses the nuclear deterrence potential of the United States of America. The aim of the publication is to answer the question about changes which have been occurring in American nuclear arsenals in recent years. The author discusses the historical background and the factors affecting the current state of the US nuclear triad. The article describes all the components of the triad, that is land-based nuclear weapons located on board strategic nuclear submarines and carried by strategic bombers. The main ways of delivery of nuclear weapons used operationally are discussed and their future, in accordance with the plans of the US administration. An attempt is made to highlight recently intensified activities aimed at maintaining and modernising weapon systems currently held and new weapons designs planned for implementation. This is of great importance, on one hand, due to the dynamic changes in the international security environment, and on the other hand due to the financial constraints which US armed forces are currently subjected to.

12

Reformy i modernizacja Sił Zbrojnych Federacji Rosyjskiej

Affek J.

Zeszyty Naukowe / Wyższa Szkoła Oficerska Wojsk Lądowych im. gen. T. Kościuszki

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2014

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Nr 1

5--16

PL

W artykule omówiony został przebieg reform prowadzonych w ostatnich latach w rosyjskich siłach zbrojnych ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem programów modernizacji technicznej. Au-tor przedstawił uwarunkowania wpływające na aktualny stan Sił Zbrojnych Federacji Rosyjskiej oraz trudności we wdrażaniu założeń realizowanego obecnie dziesięcioletniego Państwowego Programu Uzbrojenia 2020. Celem publikacji jest znalezienie odpowiedzi na pytanie, czy obserwowany trend wzrostowy w zakresie inwestycji w rosyjskie siły zbrojne i rozwój ich potencjału ma szansę się utrzymać oraz wskazanie jakie może to stanowić zagrożenie dla bezpieczeństwa Polski.

EN

The article presents the reforms which have recently been carried out in the Russian Armed Forces, with special attention paid to technical modernization programmes. The author de-scribes the factors which have influenced the current situation of the Russian Armed Forces and the difficulties connected with the implementation of the ten-year State Armament Program 2020.

13

Wojskowo-satelitarny potencjał Federacji Rosyjskiej

Galoch B.

Kwartalnik Bellona

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2010

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Nr 3

44--50

PL

Autor przedstawia rezultaty prac prowadzonych w Federacji Rosyjskiej nad wykorzystaniem przestrzeni kosmicznej na potrzeby militarne. Podkreśla, że inspiracją do nich może być obserwowany w niektórych państwach rozwój prac nad bronią jądrową oraz środkami jej przenoszenia. Nie bez znaczenia jest jednostronne wypowiedzenie przez USA przestrzegania postanowień układu ABM oraz wdrażanie przez Pentagon koncepcji sieciocentrycznych działań bojowych z wykorzystaniem przestrzeni kosmicznej. Dzięki poprawie sytuacji ekonomicznej w Federacji Rosyjskiej możliwe są dalsze prace nad wojskowymi programami kosmicznymi. Autor zwraca także uwagę na zmiany w nowej doktrynie obronnej FR dotyczące zasad użycia broni jądrowej.

EN

The article presents the results of the research conducted in the Russian Federation on the employment of outer space for military needs. The author emphasizes that they could be inspired by the nuclear weapon development and weapons delivery, which may be observed in same countries. The unilateral withdrawal of the USA from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty is also quite significant as well as the Pentagon's implementation of the network centric combat operations with the use of outer space. As the economic situation improved in the Russian Federation, further research over the military space programs is possible. Last but not least, the writer discusses the amendments to the Russian defense doctrine on the nuclear weapon use.

14

Triada strategiczna Stanów Zjednoczonych

Czulda R.

Kwartalnik Bellona

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2008

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Nr 4

23--28

EN

The article refers to evolution of American nuclear forces, called strategic triad. Against expectations, the end of the Cold War did not mean elimination of powerful arsenals of this weapon. The President Bush's administration introduced many changes to the idea of maintenance of nuclear arsenals: different system architecture, commencement of works on new concepts, and announcement of minimal reduction of a nuclear potential.

15

Broń jądrowa i radiologiczna, czyli o czym „marzą” terroryści

Solarz J.

Zeszyty Naukowe AON

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2007

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nr 1(66)

165-183

EN

The nuclear and radiological weapons are two elements of weapons of mass destruction, where one of the destructive factors is the radioactive contamination of terrain. Such interaction can in a significant manner disrupt or even prevent the functioning of various military and civilian structures or systems. It is being assessed that the scale of threats can be diametrically different from local contamination in a limited area-caused by radiological weapons-to massive destruction and extensive areas of contamination caused by the detonation of a nuclear explosion. Despite evident disproportions, under terrorist threat conditions, both situations need to be treated equally serious and adequate precaution should be employed to prevent these. The article is an attempt to present current threats implied by terrorist attempts to gain and use nuclear and radiological weapons. For this reason the usefulness of the discussed means for terrorist goals are presented, potential methods of their gaining are being illustrated, whereas various difficulties linked to their gain are provided. An attempt of formulating an algorithm to assess the threat level of a nuclear or radiological attack has also been made. The most probable areas of problems to be solved have been pinpointed in this algorithm. The final effect of the conducted research was the assessment of objects which could be potential targets of nuclear or radiological strikes. Furthermore, when considering radiological strikes, various forms of such strikes have been specified and an assessment of their potential effects has been provided.

16

Bliski Wschód - dzisiaj

Kaczmarek Julian

Wiedza Obronna

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2007

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nr 1

21--31

17

Broń jądrowa i bezpieczny świat

Solarz J.

Zeszyty Naukowe AON

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2006

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nr 2(63)

52-70

EN

Nuclear weapon is an extremely spectacular and at the same time lethal means of fighting. Some consider it a single "true” weapon of mass destruction whose destructive power exceeds everything that has ever been invented. Long lasting nuclear armament race was stopped, while countries that have nuclear weapon undertook many initiatives to its reduction and non-proliferation. A particular role is played by two strongest nuclear countries - the United States and Russia, which competing for many years were also the initiators of numerous disarmament treaties, pacts and conventions. The article presents the idea of contemporary threats in the aspect of nuclear weapon acquisition, possessing and using. For better understanding, the current world nuclear potential and its influence on international security is discussed. Also the revaluations that took place in the perception of threat awareness and defence methods are described. Four categories when nuclear weapon may pose a threat for the modern world are defined. They involve nuclear terrorism, new nuclear countries and regional conflicts, existing nuclear weapon arsenals and the risk that the non-proliferation idea of nuclear weapon may devaluate. Additionally, the latest solution of this problem is presented, called universal compliance, supported by Canegie Endowment for International Peace.

18

Czynniki rażenia broni jądrowej. Cz. 5, Promieniowanie świetlne

Solarz J.

Zeszyty Naukowe AON

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2004

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nr 2(55)

276-291

EN

Light radiation is one of five nuclear weapon destructive factors. As the others it may cause serious problems in tactical and operational actions. Similarly to shock wave, light radiation is a phenomenon characteristic not only for nuclear explosions but also conventional ones. Only the amount of energy released after the explosion is different. However, the scale of these phenomena is incomparable and depends on the power of particular blasts. The power of nuclear explosions is thousands or even millions times bigger than any conventional ones. The article presents the idea of nuclear explosion light radiation, its sources and probably effects on people, terrain, equipment and armament. Also the principles of forming a ball of fire, its expansion and character of its radiation. In order to understand the character of this radiation, the influence of light impulses on equipment, people and materials has been discussed in detail underlining the real probability of possible shock.

19

Czynniki rażenia broni jądrowej. Cz. 4, Fala uderzeniowa

Solarz J.

Zeszyty Naukowe AON

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2004

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nr 1(54)

110-128

EN

The shock wave is the most serious nuclear weapon destructive factor. Its energy usually makes up for the half of overall energy given off during a nuclear blast. Having an enormous destructive power, it may lead to substantial destruction of armament and equipment and also to mass radiation among troops and civilian population. The emergence and spread of the nuclear bomb shock wave differs very little from the phenomena that occur during conventional charges explosions. The scale, however, is entirely different, the amount of destruction and radiation in particular. Therefore it is of utmost importance to recognise in detail all aspects of the shock wave emerging and spreading and its influence on conducting combat operations. The article presents the principles of the shock wave emergence after surface, under and over surface explosions. It has been pointed out to the idea of the destructive action of the shock wave and the static overpressure and the wind gusts have been discussed in detail. Additionally the influence of the terrain and meteorological conditions on the shock wave effects has been analysed. In order to understand better the threats, which the shock wave poses after an atomic explosion, its influence of living organisms, combat equipment and armament has been presented. Moreover the basic principles of protection against the shock wave have been defined.

20

Bezpieczeństwo zbiorowe i zagrożenia

Świątnicki W.

Zeszyty Naukowe AON

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2004

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nr 2(55)

71-82

EN

The author presented “collective security’’ on legal grounds that were created after World War II and situation that occurred at the beginning of the 21st century and what phenomena make a new legal quality for collective security. He exposed contemporary functioning of the United Nations, the Security Council in particular, in new conditions. He also showed facts that may make the reader’s own draw hypothesis. The major part of the article deals with legal - military situation in space. Poland ratified several treaties, signed by the UN, concerning space activities. A complex influence of situation in space on relations between the main and minor superpowers is underlined. Also terrorism as a new threat has been discussed. A possible development of terrorism and difficulties to diagnose how to counteract it effectively have been shown. The article contains seven sources that are the basis to form the author’s comments.