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1

Threats to shipping in the black sea and their global impact

Nitsenko Vitalij, Vlasenko Tatiena, Stakhov A., Golubkova I., Gerasymchuk Nataliia, Petrychenko O.

Zeszyty Naukowe. Transport / Politechnika Śląska

|

2025

|

z. 128

145--162

EN

The article examines the threats to cargo transportation in the Black Sea and the directions of their impact on the maritime transport industry both regionally and globally. The assessment of the military component of these threats is important for all aspects of the transport fleet, primarily because the significance of military threats is greater than that of other risks to maritime transport. In particular, it is indicated that the consequences of threats to the merchant fleet due to hostilities in the Black Sea are not only sunken and damaged vessels, people lost, but also dynamic changes in freight rates and even an increase in the average service life of merchant vessels of the warring parties. This increases the risks of accidents and has already led to significant threats to marine biocenosis, which contradicts the principles of green shipping. The above principles, as proven by research, are also contradicted by the trend of reducing the development of alternative fuel infrastructure, which leads to a reduction in the possibilities of its further use by merchant fleet vessels. The importance of introducing fragmented logistics schemes, primarily expanding the use of the ro-ro network, for reducing the impact of threats is noted. The study confirms that the threat of sea pollution with a significant uncertain component is also represented by the systematic illegal transshipment of oil products in the open sea to avoid sanctions. At the same time, the study indicates that the significant uncertainty of wartime threats complicates the relevant assessment and forecasting of the parameters of all aspects of maritime transportation. It is also noted that the impact of the uncertainty of military risks limits the use of recursive vector autoregression for forecasting the freight rate. Therefore, a mathematical model is proposed to separate uncertainty from the impact of other factors that are considered as "colored" noise. It is also proposed to use an interval approach with an uneven distribution of the resulting function over the area of existence with its subsequent refinement by parameter estimation methods with other metrics. The mathematical model allows taking into account the different orientations of the impact vectors of uncertain factors, which increases the relevance of the forecast. The increasing relevance of maritime transport forecasts will contribute to risk prevention measures and resource provision to mitigate their consequences. Taking into account the uncertain component of risks is important not only in wartime, since this component is also present in maritime transport risks in peacetime. This will ensure the appropriate level of sustainability of cargo transportation by sea, reasonably shape the directions for the introduction of digital, green technologies, methods for optimizing logistics routes, etc.

2

Sustainable development of renewable energy in shipping: technological and environmental prospects

Melnyk Oleksiy, Bulgakov Mykola, Fomin Oleksij, Onyshchenko Svitlana, Pulyaev Igor

Zeszyty Naukowe. Transport / Politechnika Śląska

|

2025

|

z. 127

165--188

EN

Shipping is one of the major sources of greenhouse gas emissions; therefore, immediate actions must be taken in the field of sustainable development. This study focuses on exploring the use of renewable energy to mitigate emissions and enhance energy efficiency on board ships. Hence, technologies for capturing, utilizing, and storing solar, wind, and carbon energy are investigated. Further, the study weighs these approaches in terms of benefits, drawbacks, and potential application in sustainable maritime operations. To quantify the practicability of the solutions analyzed, an interdisciplinary approach intertwining feasibility analysis, simulation modeling, and policy evaluation is used. Topics discussed include technological barriers, economic barriers, and regulatory frameworks. It also highlights recent advances with great environmental potential in shipping, such as hybrid propulsion systems and fuel cell technologies. The results showed that the hybrid systems with renewable energy combined with CCUS can reduce CO₂ emissions from ships up to 90%, which, in the best case, simultaneously imparts an increased operational efficiency and environmental sustainability. The study therefore examined regulatory and policy options that could facilitate the transition to renewable energy in this sector, and the industrial application of these technologies is thus presented as a key stage in environmentally sustainable development.

3

Methodological comparison of lane design approaches under terminal traffic conditions in Świnoujście

Kotkowska Diana, Kościelecki Maciej

Zeszyty Naukowe. Organizacja i Zarządzanie / Politechnika Śląska

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2025

|

z. 224

185--208

EN

Purpose: The aim of the study was to look at the challenges posed by the construction of a new container terminal in Świnoujście - both from a technical, operational, environmental and socio-economic perspective. The authors focused on how shipping infrastructure can be designed in a modern, safe and sustainable way. A comparison of several methods for determining the width of the fairway was made to assess which one would work best. This will enable an understanding of how to make better decisions when planning such large investments. Design/methodology/approach: For the study, fairway width calculations were made using three methods - Canadian, PIANC and USACE - and the resulting data were collated to better understand the discrepancies. The study also made references to current research about risk in ports and the need for responsible and sustainable investment. Findings: The results of the analysis suggest that the discrepancies between the results of the different methods highlight the importance of an informed choice of tools and design components. It was emphasised that a flexible approach to design is needed to take into account changing climatic, technical and social conditions. The importance of implementing infrastructure monitoring systems was emphasised. Research limitations/implications: The scope of the analysis was partly limited by the availability of up-to-date technical and environmental data, which necessitated the use of simplifications that could affect the precision of the results. In the future, it would be worth extending the study to include computer simulations based on real hydrodynamic and meteorological data and comparing the results with similar investments in other ports to better adapt solutions to local conditions. Practical implications: The results presented can be a valuable resource for practitioners - from port managers to planning and investment professionals. They highlight the importance of a holistic approach - combining technical issues with analysis of risk, environment and social considerations. This can help avoid costly design mistakes and better prepare for future operational challenges. Social implications: The study highlights the impact of such investments on local communities and the environment. They can contribute to more open community dialogue and better policy decisions. Sustainable port planning affects not only the economy, but also the quality of life of residents and the state of the environment. Originality/value: The publication has a practical aspect, being based on a real case study of the planned construction of a container terminal in Świnoujscie. It compares fairway design methods in relation to local conditions. It provides a tool for those involved in port infrastructure development.

4

Zielona rewolucja w transporcie morskim

Marzyński Szymon

Logistyka

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2025

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nr 6

12--16

PL

Transport morski, odpowiadający za przewóz ok. 90% światowych towarów, stoi w obliczu najbardziej radykalnej transformacji w swojej historii.

5

Technologie niskoemisyjne w transporcie morskim

Czekała Agnieszka, Majewska Karolina

Kierunek Energetyka

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2025

|

Nr 4

58--62

PL

Unia Europejska dostrzega i docenia potencjał drzemiący w wodorze jako alternatywnym źródle energii, które odgrywa kluczową rolę w transformacji systemu energetycznego - ale i np. transportu morskiego - w kierunku bardziej zrównoważonego, niskoemisyjnego i innowacyjnego.

6

Technologie niskoemisyjne w transporcie morskim

Czekała Agnieszka, Majewska Karolina

Kierunek Chemia

|

2025

|

Nr 4

48-52

PL

Unia Europejska dostrzega i docenia potencjał drzemiący w wodorze jako alternatywnym źródle energii, które odgrywa kluczową rolę w transformacji systemu energetycznego - ale i np. transportu morskiego - w kierunku bardziej zrównoważonego, niskoemisyjnego i innowacyjnego.

7

The evolution of deep sea shipping container routes calling at Italian ports in the pandemic period

Lupi Marino, Conte Daniele, Sarno Maurizio, Zoppi Sara, Farina Alessandro

Transport Problems

|

2024

|

T. 19, z. 4

151--164

EN

In this paper, the resilience of the Italian deep sea shipping (DSS) container routes in situations of severe crisis (in this case, the COVID-19 pandemic), is studied quantitatively, distinguishing gateway and transshipment DSS routes. In addition, DSS container routes in the pandemic period (i.e., from 2020 to 2023), have been compared to those before the pandemic, in particular from 2011 to 2019. The results have shown that while gateway traffic decreased from 2019 to 2023, due to the reduction of the demand connected to the pandemic, transshipment traffic has increased, in contrast to the trend before the pandemic that has shown a considerable reduction from 2011 to 2019. The results also show that the naval gigantism phenomenon increased from 2011 to 2019 but seems to have stopped since 2019. This analysis is highly important in the field of maritime studies, as it covers the two most important phenomena concerning maritime transport that have occurred over the past 10 years (i.e., naval gigantism and the COVID-19 pandemic).

8

Import ropy naftowej i gazu ziemnego do polski drogą morską w świetle badań własnych

Kłak Marcin, Woźniakowski Mariusz, Zadworny Waldemar, Rokoszyński Alan

Zeszyty Naukowe Wyższej Szkoły Technicznej w Katowicach

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2023

|

T. 17

87--108

PL

Celem niniejszego artykułu jest zbadanie importu ropy naftowej i gazu ziemnego do Polski drogą morską w latach 2010-2021 oraz prognoza tego zjawiska na lata 2022-2026. Aby zrealizować to zamierzenie, wykorzystano dane Głównego Urzędu Statystycznego (GUS). Ponadto, autorzy dokonali systematycznego przeglądu literatury dotyczącej transportu morskiego. Opisano wady i zalety tego sposobu transportu oraz wymagane dokumenty. Wyszczególniono infrastrukturę liniową i punktową oraz różne rodzaje statków. Przedstawiono również najistotniejsze aspekty światowej produkcji ropy naftowej i gazu ziemnego. Zasadnicza część artykułu poświęcona jest badaniom własnym importu omawianych surowców do Polski, na przestrzeni ostatnich lat. W publikacji przedstawiono również metodologię badań i problem badawczy, dokonano analizy danych i prognozy na ich podstawie oraz sformułowano wnioski.

EN

The aim of this article is to analyze oil and gas imports to Poland by sea over the past few years, as well as to forecast imports and establish oil import trends for 2023-2026. To achieve this goal, data from the Statistics Poland was used. In addition, the authors conducted a systematic review of the literature on shipping. The advantages and disadvantages of this mode of transportation were described, as well as the required documents. Line and point infrastructure, as well as different types of ships were listed. The most relevant aspects of world oil and gas production are also presented. The main part of the article is devoted to a study of Poland’s own imports of the raw materials in question over the past years. The publication also presents the research methodology and research problem, analyzes the data and forecasts based on them, and makes conclusions.

9

Transport of goods on the example of a selected section of transport in Poland

Macioszek Elżbieta, Jurdana Irena

Zeszyty Naukowe. Transport / Politechnika Śląska

|

2023

|

z. 121

127--140

EN

The article presents the issue of the transport of goods in relation to sea transport. Sea transport has been known to mankind for a long time. Currently, maritime transport is not limited only to the transport of goods and/or passengers along sea routes, which are carried out between seaports using appropriately adapted means of transport. It is a branch of transport, which consists of a very good knowledge of navigation, highly specialized staff, and a wide range of containers for transporting various types of cargo, often requiring specialized conditions. In addition, sea transport is perfectly combined with intermodal transport, so that in the end, the transport process is the most beneficial for all participants, i.e., the customers, sellers, distributors, and manufacturers. The main purpose of the article was to present the volume of goods transported in this branch of transport. The article, after introducing the issue, presents the classification of sea vessels, refers to the market of maritime transport services and its conditions for further development, and analyzes the overall volume of goods transported in the seaports of Gdańsk and Gdynia against the background of other Polish seaports in the years 2011-2021.

10

Selected polynomial identification techniques to evaluate maritime transport trends around Covid-19

Borucka Anna, Kozłowski Edward

Zeszyty Naukowe. Transport / Politechnika Śląska

|

2023

|

z. 120

51--68

EN

The Covid-19 pandemic has drastically affected the transport sector, because of the restrictions introduced to limit the spread of the threat. They concerned primarily passenger traffic, but trade in goods also faced completely new challenges, related to increased consumption and the dynamic development of e-commerce on the one hand and restrictions related to the pandemic and sealing borders on the other. One of the most susceptible to fluctuations in international trade is the maritime economy, which has been analysed in this article. It was checked how the global threat affected sea traffic in terms of gross weight of goods handled in main ports. The aim of the study was to characterize the impact of the pandemic on sea transport depending on the type of ship and to evaluate the current state of sea transport in the context of the level shaped by forecasts based on observations from before the coronavirus pandemic. The authors' assumption was to check whether the rail transport market has already reached the level it could reach in the absence of the virus threat. The use of a polynomial function was proposed for the study. Time series containing observations up to the outbreak of the pandemic and forecasts based on them, as well as time series containing additional observations from the pandemic period were analysed. The study results obtained allowed to conclude how the global crisis caused by the Covid-19 pandemic affected the cargo traffic in the sea transport, expressed by the mass of goods transshipped in major ports, depending on the individual types of ships.

11

Environmental solutions for maritime ships: challenges and needs

Gucma Michalina, Deja Agnieszka, Szymonowicz Jakub

Production Engineering Archives

|

2023

|

Vol. 29, Iss. 2

216-224

EN

The manuscript focuses on the subject of environmental solutions for maritime ships. With the increasing volume of cargo transported by sea, it is crucial to minimise its environmental impact. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has introduced new regulations in recent years to limit environmental damage. IMO’s initial strategy for reducing GHG emissions from ships aims to reduce GHG emissions from vessels by 50% by 2050 and CO2 emissions by 70% compared to 2008 (Resolution MEPC.304 (72), 2018). This has prompted ship owners to seek solutions to reduce fossil fuel consumption. The study aims to determine the feasibility of using eco-friendly solutions in maritime shipping to meet the challenges and needs of sustainable maritime fleet. Own contribution includes expert findings, which evaluate individual solutions and their potential uses in global maritime fleet. The publication also highlights the current usage of eco-friendly solutions on ships as well as crew and ship owner attitudes towards their future use and presents conceptual solutions. It should be noted that the subject-matter addressed in this paper is topical and very important in view of the limitations being introduced in respect of environmental standards. The manuscript focuses on the subject of environmental solutions for maritime ships. With the increasing volume of cargo transported by sea, it is crucial to minimise its environmental impact. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has introduced new regulations in recent years to limit environmental damage. IMO’s initial strategy for reducing GHG emissions from ships aims to reduce GHG emissions from vessels by 50% by 2050 and CO2 emissions by 70% compared to 2008 (Resolution MEPC.304 (72), 2018). This has prompted ship owners to seek solutions to reduce fossil fuel consumption. The study aims to determine the feasibility of using eco-friendly solutions in maritime shipping to meet the challenges and needs of sustainable maritime fleet. Own contribution includes expert findings, which evaluate individual solutions and their potential uses in global maritime fleet. The publication also highlights the current usage of eco-friendly solutions on ships as well as crew and ship owner attitudes towards their future use and presents conceptual solutions. It should be noted that the subject-matter addressed in this paper is topical and very important in view of the limitations being introduced in respect of environmental standards.

12

Łączność sieciowa w portach kontenerowych

Dozór Techniczny

|

2023

|

z. 6

20--21

PL

Dążenie do zwiększenia przepustowości międzynarodowego transportu morskiego opiera się na wysokowydajnych dźwigach, które szybko i bezpiecznie przenoszą ładunki kontenerowe ze statków na nabrzeża.

13

Inference processes in the automatic communication system for autonomous vessels

Pańka Anna, Wołejsza Piotr

Archives of Transport

|

2023

|

Vol. 68, iss. 4

117--135

EN

The era of autonomous ships has already begun in maritime transport. The 30-year forecast for the development of marine technologies predicts many autonomous vessels at sea. This will necessitate radical implementation of new intelligent maritime navigation systems. One of the intelligent systems that has to be implemented is a collision avoidance system. The inference process is a key element of autonomous manoeuvres. These authors propose an inference process that enables exchange of information, intentions and expectations between autonomous vessels and gives them an opportunity to negotiate a safe manoeuvre satisfying all the parties concerned. The model of inference in the communication process has been presented. Methods and algorithms for information exchange and negotiation have been developed. These models were implemented and tested under various conditions. The results of case studies indicate that it is possible to effectively communicate and negotiate used the developed method. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the presented approach over 30 random simulations have been carried out. After successful laboratory tests, over 100 scenarios were executed in quasi-real conditions and fully operational conditions. Tests were carried out in the center of the Foundation for the Safety of Navigation and Environmental Protection on Lake Silm in Iława, Poland. In the framework of project AVAL (Autonomous Vessel with an Air Look) POIR.04.01.04-00-0025-16, 82 random scenarios involving four vessels were performed and 60 random scenarios with two vessels. In 2020 tests were carried out in real conditions on the ferries Wolin and m/f Gryf. The communication and negotiation system presented in the article has been designed and developed specially for maritime navigation purposes. The authors believe that the presented solution can be one of various solutions implemented in autonomous shipping in the near future.

14

Ryzyko operacyjne w transporcie morskim ładunków

Sokołowski Wojciech, Kierszka Michał

Rocznik Bezpieczeństwa Morskiego

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2022

|

R. XVI

97--116

PL

W artykule dokonano próby oszacowania ryzyka operacyjnego w transporcie morskim ładunków. W tym kontekście omówiono istotę morskiego transportu ładunków, scharakteryzowano cztery podstawowe obszary ryzyka operacyjnego oraz przeprowadzono jego ocenę. Obejmowała ona identyfikację ryzyka i analizę potencjalnych zagrożeń, ocenę ilościową i jakościową oraz zaproponowanie sposobów minimalizowania przedmiotowego ryzyka.

15

Determinants of the provision of maritime travel in the context of a sense of security of generation Y representatives

Mazurkiewicz Marta, Chojnacka Małgorzata, Gutowska Ewelina, Gutowski Piotr, Wilczyńska-Strawa Agnieszka

Rocznik Bezpieczeństwa Morskiego

|

2022

|

R. XVI

117--133

EN

In order to ensure the highest level of maritime travel safety, standards and rules are applied aimed at eliminating potential risks. In view of changes in the environment – as a result of, among others, the Covid-19 pandemic and Russia’s aggression against Ukraine – it has become necessary to verify expec-tations and preferences towards the provision of maritime transport services from the perspective of its users, representing generation Y. A key factor for evaluating cruise maritime service in the situation of current threats was identi-fied to achieve the objective of this study. At the same time, groups of factors responsible for the emergence of threats to travelers were identified, and pro-posals for measures to increase confidence in maritime transportation were evaluated from the perspective of the surveyed participants.

16

Morska ekomobilność. Wykorzystanie biopaliw - biodiesla do napędzania konwencjonalnych śmigieł w łodzi w porównaniu ze śmigłami biomimetycznymi

Zill-e-Hussain, Stempniak Marta

Energetyka Cieplna i Zawodowa

|

2022

|

Nr 1

92--94

PL

Z ponad 51 000 statków handlowych i kilku tysięcy okrętów marynarki pływających po otwartych morzach i oceanach, zanieczyszczenie mórz stało się znaczącym czynnikiem nie tylko globalnej zmiany klimatu, ale także szybkiego zaniku życia morskiego i niszczenia ich cennych ekosystemów. Wraz z szybkim postępem technologicznym w inżynierii, produkcji, transporcie itp. wzrosła potrzeba szybszych, wydajnych i czystszych technik.

17

The effects of particular factors connected with maritime transport on quality and safety of cereal as a cargo

Ocieczek Aneta, Mesinger Dominika, Kaizer Adam, Zawadzki Mateusz

Transport Problems

|

2021

|

T. 16, z. 2

19--32

EN

The article discusses the effect of conditions during maritime transport on particular quality and safety parameters of cereal, in relation to quality management and logistics management. Therefore, transport requirements for cereal as a cargo were identified, and furthermore, threats resulting from improperly conducted logistic proces of bulk material with strong sorption properties were described. The aim of this article was to compare the differences in sorption properties between four selected cereal species using the static desiccator method. This method is the standard reference method. As a result of the conducted research, the existence of significant variability in the sensitivity to the effect of maritime transport conditions among cereal as a product group was identified. The most resistant to water vapor was rye grain. The differences between each cereal species should be associated with variability in the physical structure and chemical composition of grains of each individual cereal species. Further works in this area should take into consideration not only the diversity but also the variability of cereal sensitivity owing to the combined effect of relative humidity of the atmosphere and ambient temperature with use of the indepth thermodynamic analysis of sorption.

18

Bezpieczeństwo przewozu towarów niebezpiecznych w transporcie morskim

Kołdys Karolina

Promotor BHP

|

2021

|

nr 11-12

34--41

PL

Transport morski umożliwia przewóz towarów niebezpiecznych. Zasady obejmujące ten typ transportu są zawarte w odpowiednich konwencjach i kodeksach.

19

Wymagania cyberbezpieczeństwa dla infrastruktury portowej

Kamiński Marcin

Cybersecurity & Cybercrime

|

2021

|

T. 1, Nr 1

85--100

PL

Celem niniejszego artykułu jest scharakteryzowanie zagrożeń cyberbezpieczeństwa związanych z funkcjonowaniem infrastruktury portów morskich. Eskalacja wykorzystania nowoczesnych systemów teleinformatycznych w transporcie morskim pozwala na rozwój efektywności procesów przeładunkowych, usprawnienie ruchu środków transportu multimodalnego oraz procesów logistycznych i zwiększenie ich bezpieczeństwa. Ze względu na szerokie wykorzystanie tych technologii narasta możliwość występowania incydentów bezpieczeństwa cyberprzestrzeni. Pojawia się potrzeba zdefiniowania uniwersalnych, podstawowych wymagań cyberbezpieczeństwa, które będą stanowić fundament tworzenia rozwiązań decydujących o utrzymywanym poziomie bezpieczeństwa w portach morskich. Ponadto przedstawiono podstawowe rozwiązania i dobre praktyki pozwalające na sprostanie postawionym wymaganiom.

EN

The purpose of this article is to characterize cybersecurity threats related to the functioning of seaport infrastructure. The escalation of the use of modern teleinformation systems in maritime transport allows for the development of the efficiency of transshipment processes, improvement of the movement of multimodal transport means and logistic processes and increasing their safety. Due to the wide use of these technologies, the possibility of cyberspace security incidents is growing. There is a need to define universal, basic cybersecurity requirements that will constitute the foundation for creating solutions determining the maintained level of security in sea ports. Moreover, the basic solutions and good practices allowing to meet the set requirements were presented.

20

Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator as an Index of Carbon Dioxide Emission from Marine Transport

Herdzik Jerzy

Rocznik Ochrona Środowiska

|

2020

|

Tom 22, cz. 1

549--560

EN

The paper presents Energy Efficiency Operational Index (EEOI) introduced through International Maritime Organization (IMO) which defined the carbon dioxide emission as a result of transport specific cargo mass on specific distance. The total fuel consumption from all elements of vessel energetic system causes the carbon dioxide emission. Ship-owners should inform the marine administration about the fuel consumption from all vessels of 5000 tons of gross tonnage or more from 1st January 2018. In marine transport about 85% of carbon dioxide emission comes from such vessels. The calculating of EEOI is voluntary now but it is indicated to do it. It allows on an assessment the differences between the Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) obligatory during design process of a vessel and its power plant and EEOI. Due to it may be estimated the correctness of vessel and power plant operation in exploitational conditions. The basic way of EEOI decreasing is slow steaming of a vessel. The power demand for propulsion (and fuel consumption) is proportional to the third power of vessel velocity (according to the propeller characteristics) on the other hand the hull resistance (the demand for thrust by propeller) is proportional to the second power of vessel velocity. As a result it causes the decreasing of total fuel consumption for covering the same distance but increasing the time of voyage. It is for acceptance during a bad economic situation. Although it will be no acceptable during a good economic situation when it will be required the increasing of vessel velocity (decreasing the time of voyage). The other effective methods are under research which allows to reach the same aim. It is known such methods of vessel operation which leading to the decreasing of that index. The paper shows these methods with their characteristics.

PL

W artykule omówiono wprowadzony przez Międzynarodową Organizację Morską (IMO) wskaźnik zwany eksploatacyjnym indeksem efektywności energetycznej statku (EEOI), który określa emisję dwutlenku węgla w wyniku transportu jednostki masy ładunku na jednostkową odległość. Za emisję CO2 odpowiada zużycie paliwa przez wszystkie elementy okrętowego układu energetycznego. Od 1 stycznia 2018 r. armatorzy muszą zgłaszać do administracji morskiej ilość zużytego paliwa przez poszczególne statki o tonażu od 5000, które odpowiadają za 85% zużycia paliwa w transporcie morskim. Wyznaczanie wskaźnika EEOI jest obecnie dobrowolne, ale wskazane, aby go wyznaczać. Pozwala to na określenie różnic między projektowym indeksem efektywności energetycznej statku (EEDI), który jest obligatoryjny w procesie projektowania statku i elementów układu energetycznego, a eksploatacyjnym. Dzięki temu można oszacować poprawność eksploatacji siłowni i statku w warunkach rzeczywistych. Podstawowym sposobem zmniejszenia wskaźnika EEOI jest zmniejszenie prędkości eksploatacyjnej statku. Zapotrzebowanie na moc napędu (i zużycie paliwa) jest proporcjonalne do trzeciej potęgi prędkości statku (wg tzw. charakterystyki śrubowej), natomiast opór kadłuba (zapotrzebowanie na siłę naporu przez śrubę okrętową) jest proporcjonalny do potęgi drugiej prędkości statku. Skutkuje to zmniejszeniem zużycia paliwa na pokonanie tej samej drogi, ale wydłuża czas podróży. W okresie dekoniunktury na rynku żeglugowym jest to do przyjęcia. Jednak wraz z pojawieniem się oznak koniunktury, które będą wymagać wzrostu prędkości statku (skrócenia czasu podróży) będzie to niemożliwe. Poszukuje się więc innych skutecznych metod, które pozwolą osiągnąć ten sam cel. Znane są możliwości takich sposobów eksploatacji statku, które prowadzą do zmniejszenia tego wskaźnika. W artykule wskazano na te metody wraz z ich charakterystyką.